y ^ ,wjw» #' ^ - 
























1 '/ 









^ "V 






** 



\°=J, 







THE PRINCIPLES 



OF 



LATIN GEAMMAE, 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GRAMMARS EXTANT. 



WITH AN 



APPENDIX AND COMPLETE INDEX. 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 



BY 

PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 

AUTHOR OP THE "SERIES OF ENGLISH, LATIN, AND GREEK GRAMMARS, AND SCHOOL 



CLASSICS. 



REVISED BY 

CHARLES D. MOEEIS, 



LATE RECTOR OF TRINITY SCIIOOL, N. Y., AND FORMERLY FELLOW OF ORIEL COLLEGE, 

OXFORD, ENGLAND. 




NEW YORK: 
SHELDON AND COMPANY, 

498 & 500 BROADWAY. 
1867. 



»*' 



1*.?V1 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by 
PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern 
District of New York. 

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 

EXECUTOKS OF P. BULLIONS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern 

District of New York. 



BULLION'S NEW SERIES OF GRAMMARS AND SCHOOL CLASSICS. 

BULLIONS'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 90 cents. 

BULLIONS'S COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR, 50 cents 

BULLIONS'S ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR *1 

BULLIONS'S EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING 25 cents ' 

SPENCER'S LATIN LESSONS, $1. BULLIONS'S LATIN GRAMMAR *1 50 

BULLIONS AND MORRIS'S LATIN LESSONS, $1 MAMMAL, $1 50. 

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BULLIONS'S LATIN READER, $1 50. BULLIONS'S SALLUST *1 50 

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BULLIONS'S LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, $4 50 * 

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WAYLAND'S INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY *1 7*> 

SHELDON & COMPANY, 

PUBLISHERS, New YORK. 



PEEFAOE 



The system adopted by Dr. Bullions in his series of Grammars 
is so well known, that it requires no lengthy explanation now. His 
view was, that while all efforts should be made by the teacher and 
by the writer of text-books, to make pupils understand the princi- 
ples of what they were taught, it was still of the greatest advantage 
that the main facts of the subject should be presented in such a way 
that they might readily be committed to memory, and that thus 
young persons should easily be furnished with a succinct and scien- 
tific statement of the chief doctrines imparted to them, expressed in 
a more compendious and logical form than they could be expected 
to frame for themselves. In this edition of Dr. Bullions' Latin 
Grammar, this fundamental conception of the proper w r ay of pre- 
senting the subject has been in no degree departed from. In the 
subordinate treatment of the subject, however, some alterations have 
been made, which the Editor hopes may be thought improvements, 
and which he must now briefly particularize. 

1. Instead of marking the quantity of the penultimate syllables 
only, the quantity of all the syllables in the Latin words has been 
indicated without overloading the text with marks, by the plan of 
marking the long vowels only, leaving it to be understood that all 
the unmarked vowels, which are by far the most numerous, are 
short. If this matter is systematically attended to, pupils will have 
learned a large part of the facts of Prosody before they come to 
study that portion of the Grammar ; and the same plan may be 
adopted with great effect in all written exercises, if Teachers will 
insist on their scholars marking all the long vowels in the words 
they use. 



IV PREFACE. 

2. In the Declensions and Conjugations, the terminations, or 
Sectional endings, have been printed in dark letters, thus making 
very obvious to the eye the distinction between the radical and the 
formative part of each inflected word. 

3. In the discussion of the separate Declensions, the matter has 
been considerably redistributed, in order that facts of a similar kind 
may be brought in juxtaposition: and throughout the book the 
most important words in each paragraph have been printed in dark 
letters, to serve as a kind of heading or key to the contents of the 
section, and to render it easy for the eye to catch the particular 
statement it is in search of. 

4. In the treatment of all inflected words, attention has been 
called to the stems or uninflected forms, from which the several cases 
or persons are made. Though the Editor is himself convinced that 
it is the best as well as the most scientific way to teach pupils to 
remember the stem, and not the nominative case or first person sin- 
gular, as representing the word denuded of all its accidental modifi- 
cations, he has not ventured to do more in this direction than to 
give such teachers as may agree with him an opportunity of carry- 
ing out this system. For the rest, the Declensions and Conjugations 
are presented and distinguished in the customary manner. 

5. The subject of the Third Declension has been much more fully 
treated than in former editions of the Grammar. In this, more than 
elsewhere, the immense advantage of the stem-system is perceptible. 
But the far greater number of words declined at length must 
prove advantageous to all, whether they work on that system or in 
the ordinary method. The facts in regard to irregular nouns of this 
Declension have been classified in a way somewhat novel, which it 
is hoped will facilitate their being learned. The rules for Gender, 
with the numerous exceptions under them, have been, for the same 
reason, given in memorial verses, which can readily be learned by 
heart, and thus become a permanent possession of the scholar. 

6. A large amount of matter, on the uses of the Pronouns and 
the Moods and Tenses of the Verb, has been redistributed and in- 
serted in its proper place in the Syntax. 

7. In the Conjugations, the Passive Voice has been printed on 
the pages opposite to those containing the Active Voice ; not, of 
course, that they may be learned simultaneously, but that when the 
Passive Voice is to be learned, the contrast between it and the 
Active, in form and meaning, may be readily seen. 



PREFACE. ~tf 

8. The conjugation of the Verb has been subjected to an elabo- 
rate analysis, which will, it is hoped, render the whole subject one 
of scientific interest, as well as greatly facilitate its thorough com- 
prehension. Here, again, the utility of the stem-system is shown : 
and the Editor is convinced that if Teachers who are fortunate 
enough to have intelligent and earnest pupils will use the tables on 
pp. 134-137, to impart the conjugations, before giving them the 
same conjugations to learn in the ordinary way, they will be amazed 
at the clearness and the rapidity with which the whole subject will 
be mastered. 

9. The list of verbs irregular in the formation of their principal 
parts has been entirely rewritten, in order to classify the verbs ac- 
cording to the way in whfch the perfect tense is formed. 

10. A chapter on the derivation and composition of words has 
been added, in which will be found the various remarks occurring 
in different places in former editions, with much new matter. 

11. In treating the Syntax, the Rules have been left nearly as 
they are in the last edition ; but the matter has been considerably 
altered in arrangement, in order that the various uses of each case 
may be found in one place. The Examples of construction which 
were heretofore given without translation, have been rendered into 
English. The whole subject of the verb has been rewritten, and it is 
hoped simplified, by a much more minute subdivision of its parts, and 
by the use of convenient terms to indicate distinct uses, particularly 
those of the Subjunctive Mood. The topic of the ordtio dbllqua is 
illustrated by several passages of considerable length from Caesar, 
in which the changes made in passing from the direct to the indirect 
mode of reporting are made very clear. The subjects of the Gerun- 
dive and the Participles have also received an elaborate and some- 
what novel treatment. 

12. The Prosody has received a careful revision. But in this 
part of the subject the Editor's views as to what would be a satis- 
factory treatment of the matter are so widely at variance with the 
received methods, that he has not ventured to remodel this portion 
of the book in accordance with his own theories. He has, there- 
fore, been content to make slight corrections and alterations here 
and there, leaving the main treatment of the subject unaltered. 

Besides the changes to which attention has been directed in this 
preface, there are doubtless' many others which might be severally 
mentioned. It would be needless to specify the particular Gram- 



VI PREFACE, 

mars or treatises which have been used in making this revision. 
The works of Madvig, Ktihner, Zumpt, Key, and Donaldson, have, 
perhaps, been more constantly examined than others ; but wherever 
the Editor has found what appeared to him a good statement, or a 
good example, he has not hesitated to avail himself of it. The 
Editor has endeavored to do his work faithfully, and he believes 
that this edition of the Grammar will be found in many respects an 
improvement on its predecessor; and he hopes it may be judged to 
contain as clear a statement of the principles of the language as is 
consistent with a scientific treatment of them, and to embody the 
best and most useful results of the very successful study which has 
been devoted to the subject by the scholars of Europe. 

New York, June 20th, 1866. 



A TABLE, 



Showing the numbers of the paragraphs in this edition of the Grammar 
which correspond to the sections and paragraphs of former editions. 
By the help of this table, the matters referred to in - the notes on the 
classical series may be readily found in this book. Where the subdivi- 
sions of a paragraph are the same in this as in former editions, they 
have been omitted in this table. The letter n stands for note ; ob y for 
observation ; ex, for exception ; and ff t for following. B. stands for 
Bullions's Latin Grammar; B. & M., for Bullions & Morris's Latin 
Grammar. 



B. B. & M. 


B. I 


5. &M. 


B. 


B.&M. 


B. B. & M. 


1 — 


1 


$6° 




51,4— 


57 


84 — 122 


2 — 


2 


31 — 
32,1— 


27 
28 


62 — 


52 


$13. 


M- 




2— 


29 


$10. 




85 — 152 


3,4 - 


3 


33 — 


30 


63 — 


58 


86, 1— 174, 5 


5-8 — 


5 






64, 65 — 


62 


2— 153,4 


10,11 — 


6 


$7. 




66 — 


63 


3— 157 


12 — 


8 


34 - 


30 


67 — 


61 


4— 155 


13,14 — 


9 


35 — 


31 


68 — 


72 


3— 158 






36-38 — 


32 


69,1— 


65 


5— 156 


$2. 




39 — 


33 


2— 


67 


87 — 159 


15-17 — 


14 


40 — 


34 


71 — 


64 


88, 1— 164 






42 — 


39 


72 — 


66 


2— 167 


$s. 




45,1— 


35 


73 — 


67 


3— 160 


18, 19 — 


12 


2— 


33 


74 — 


68 


5— 165 


20 — 


15 


3— 


39 


75 — 


70 


6— 162,3 


21 — 


16 


4— 


37 






89 — 168 


22,1— 


17 


5— 


50 


§11. 






2— 


18 


46-48 — 


42 


76 — 


73 


$15. 


3— 


17 


49 — 


43 


77 — 


74 


90, 1— 173 


4— 


19 


50-52 — 


43 






3— 169 


23 — 


20 






$12. 




4— 170, 1 


24 — 


21 


%8. 




78 — 


94 


90, 1— 111 


25 — 


22 


53_55 — 


44 


3— 


88 


2— 110 


26,2— 


23 


56 — 


46 


79 — 


99 


3— 111 


27 — 


24 


57 — 


47 


ex. 


115 


4— 127 






58 — 


48 


80 — 


83 


ob. 1— 128 


§4- 








81 — 


116 


5— 110-3 


28 — 


25 


$9. 




82 ob. 


114 


6— 111 






60 — 


51 


7— 


97 


7— 111 


§s. 




61,1— 


53 


83 — 


112 


ob. 3— 113 


29 — 


26 


2— 


54 


8— 


99 


ob. 4— 112 



Vlll 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



B. 

90 9- 
ob. 6- 

10- 
11- 
12- 
13- 

%16. 

91 - 

92 1- 
2- 
3- 

93 1- 
2- 
3- 
5- 

%17. 

94 - 
ob. 1- 
ex. - 

%18. 

96 - 
1- 

2-6- 

7- 

8- 
9- 

ob. 1- 
10- 
11- 

ob. 3- 
12- 

ob. 4- 
13- 

ob. 5- 
14- 
15- 
16- 
17- 
18- 
19- 
20- 
21- 
22- 
23- 
24- 

97 - 



B. & M. 
116-9 
120 
135 
133 
123 
136 



137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
143 
144 



146 
147 
149 



184 

187 
186 
185 
69 
176 
183 
182 
182 
182 
180 
181 
182 
182 
121 
177 
177 
177 
177 
178 
178 
178 
178 
188 
179 



189 



B. 

%20. 

98 — 
4— 

n.2— 

%21. 

99 — 
4— 

III. — 

100 e.l— 

%22. 

101 I. — 

II.— 



\24. 
102 
103 
104 



B. & M. B 



105 
106 



107 



1— 
5— 

6— 



7— 
8— 

lO- 
ll— 



\25. 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 



I— 

2— 
ex. 



26. 

113 



1— 
2— 

n. 

3— 
4— 
5— 
6— 

n. 
7— 
8— 
9— 



190 
191 
192 



193 
197 
198 
194 



199 

200 



201 
202 
203 
204 
205 
206 
207 
208 
209 
210 
211 
209 



214 
214 
215 
215 
216 
217 
218 



219 
?/0 
222 
219 
221 
222 
223 
224 
224 
224 
225 
226,7 



B. &M.i B. 



113 10— 228 
11— 229 

%27. 

114 1— 560ff. 

2— 540 ff. 

3— 555 ff. 

%28. 

115 — 230 

116 — 230 

117 — 231,2 

118 1— 230 
2—1014 

n. 1—1015 

1st 1018 

ex. 1021-6 

2d 1035 

n. 1039 

3d 1028 ff. 

4— 233 
5—1019 



\29. 

119 

120 



230 
230 



30. 

121 — 236 
ob. 2— 236 
ob. 3— 237 



31, 

122 



123 



— 239 

1— 239 
n. 241 

2— 239 

3— 243 

4— 243 
1—1029 
2—1030 

a 1032 
b 1038 
c 1034 

3— 241 

4— 242 



\32. 

124 — 243 



B. & M. 



\33. 

125 — 245 
ob. 1— 245 
ob. 2— 253 



\3d. 

126 

127 



— 246 

1— 249 

2— 249 
n. 720 

3— 247 

3— 247 

4— 248 



35. 






128 


— 


249 ff. 


36. 






129 


— 


248 


>37. 






130 




251 ff. 


131 


— 


251 ff. 


ob. 


1— 


252-4 




3— 


251 


ob. 


2— 


255 



\38. 

132 



1- 



258 
259 



§39. 

133 1— 271 

• 2— 410 

3— 304 

5— 434 

6— 451 

8— 584 

9— 588 
10— 589 



\40. 

134 

41. 

135 



260 



- 261 
2— 263 
136 1—1073 

2— 263 

3— 305 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



IX 



B. 

§42. 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 



143 
144 
145 
149 
150 
151 
152 

\43. 

153 
154 
155 

\44. 

156 
157 



B. &M. 

— 264 
— - 264 

— 264 I 
—1261 
—1273-6 

— 264 II 
1st 1265 
2d 1205 
3d 1200 

—1178 
—1193 
—1161 
—264 III 
—1198 

—miff. 

—264 IV 



158 
159 
160 



162 
163 
164 



165 
166 

167 



— 266 

— 266 

— 266 



— 266 

—1080 

1—1081 

3—1082 

4—1083 

5—1084 

6—1085 

—1086 

—1087 

—1087 

1—1088 

2—1083 

3—1088 

4—1274 

5—1086 

—1092 

—1093 

—1093 

1—1097 

3—1094 

4—1273 

5— 327 

—1096 

1—1272 

2— 327 

—1090 

1—1091 



B. B. & M. 

167 2—1355 
3—1086 
—1098 , 
2—1099 
3—1197 
127 



168 



§45. 

169 —1162 

170 1—1172 

171 1—1193 
2—1277 
3—1180 

172 1—1267 
3— 1230 ff. 
4—1244 

173 1—1179 
4—1282 

174 —1291 
2—1246 

§46. 

175 —1111 

§47. 

176 —1126 

178 —1138 

179 —1135 
1—1127 
2—1128 
3—1129 
4— 278 
6_ 281-4 

7— 330 

8— 306 
9—1133 

11— 286 

180 — 287 

§48. 

181 1— 270 
2— 333 
3—1013 

4— 646 

5— 683 

6— 265 

§49. 

182 1—1343 
5—1343 
6—1305 



B. B. & M. ! B. 
182 7—1319 j § 60. 



8—1344 
n. 3 1304 
12— 306 
13—1346 
14—1345 

§50. 

183 1—1319 
2—1360 ff. 

§51. 

184 1— 271 

2— 271 

3— 271 
ex. 334 

4— 276 

185 I. 281 
II. 333 

III. 337 

IV. 339 
V. 337-9 

§53. 

186 1— 281 

2— 338 

3— 340 

4— 340 

§54. 

187 ob. 1 279 
ob. 3 280 

§55. 

188 — 280 



\56. 

189 

\57. 

190 



282 



284 



§58. 

191 — 283 



! 59. 

192 



285 



193 

§61 

194 

§62. 
195 

§63. 

196 

§64. 
197 
198 

§65. 
199 

§66. 

200 
201 

§67. 
202 

§68. 

203 

§69. 

204 

§70. 

205 

§71. 

206 

§72. 
207 

§73. 

208 

§74. 

209 

§75. 

210 



B. & M. 

— 288 

— 290 

— 289 

— 291 



— 292 

— 296 



298 



— 293 

— 297 



— 299 

— 300 

— 302 

— 301 

— 303 

— 304 

— 307 

— 308 

— 309 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. 


B. &M. 


§70. 


$83. 


227 1— 584 


242 


3— 500 


211 — 310 


221 — 410 


ob. 1— 586 




4— 492 




1— 411 


ob. 2— .585 




5— 493 


§77. 


2— 412 


2— 588 




6— 494 


212 — 311 


3— 413 


Ob. 4— 395 


- 


7— 496 


%7S. 
213 — 312 


4— 417 


3— 589 




8— 497 


5— 418 


4— 590 


ob. 


1— 504 


6— 419 


5— 587 


ob. 


2— 505 


§79. 

214 1— 315 


7— 422 
ob. 1 424 


§89. 


§94. 




1st 315 


8— 426 


228 — 460 


243 


— 616 


2d 317 


ob. 2 428 


230 — 461 






2 — 321 


ob. 3 429 


231 — 600 


§95. 




3— 322 


9— 431 


232 1— 591 


244 


— 617 


4— 323 




2— 595, 6 






5— 325 


§84. 


3— 597, 8 


§96. 




6— 335 


222 — 434 


233 — 462 


247 


— 618 


7 — 327 


ob. 1— 435 


234 — 463 


248 


— 619 


8— 328 


ob. 2— 436 




249 


— 620 


9— 329 


2— 437 


§00. 


250 


— 621 


10— 330 


3— 440 


235 — 468 






11— 555 


4— 441 


1— 469 


§97. 






5— 442 


2— 470 


251 


— 622 


§80. 

215 — 363 


(1)_ 443 


3— 471 


252 


— 623 


(2)— 444 


236 1— 472 


254 


— 626 


1— 


(3)— 445 


2— 473 


255 


— 627 


2 — 347 


(4)— 446 


3— 474 


256 


— 628 


3— 364 


(5)— 447 


6— 475 


257 


— 629 


5— 


(6)_ 448 




258 


— 630 


1st 604 


(7)— 449 


§91. 


260 


— 631 


3d 605 


6— 326 


237 — 476 


261 


— 632 


3d 614 




238 1— 477 


262 


— 935 


5th 606 


§85. 


2— 478 






6th 615 


223 1— 451 


3— 479 


§98. 




7th 607 


2— 452 


4— 480 


263 


— 650 


8th 608 


3— 453 


5— 481 


264 


— 651 


9th 610 


4— 454 


6— 482 


265 


— 652 


10th 615 


&— 456 


7— 483 


266 


— 653 


11th 612 


6— 457 


8— 484 


267 


— 654 


12th 613 


7— 458 


9— 485 


268 


— 656 






239 — 486 


n. 


1— 657 


s-«*. 


§86, 


ob.— 487 


269 


— 658 


216 .«— 372-5 


224 — 459 




270 


— 659 


217 —376-85 




§92. 


271 


-- 660 


218 —386-99 


§87. 


240 — 506 


272 


— 661 


219 — 400-9 


225 1— 374, 2 




273 


— 662 




2— 372, 2 


§93. 


274 


— 663 


§82. 


4— 380, 2 


241 — 488 


275 


— 664 


220 2d 383 




242 — 489 


276 


— 665 


3d 399 


§88. 


1— 490 


277 


—1052 


4th 409 


226 — 582 


2— 491 


278 


— 678 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



XI 



B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


279 — 679 


315 __ 646 


359 __ 774 


401 — 829 


280 — 680 


316 — 648 


360 — 775 


402 — 830 


281 — 681 


317 — 649 


361 — 776 


403 — 831 


2S2 — 682 




362 — 777 


404 — 832 


283 — 628 


$103. 


363 — 778 


405 — 833 




319 — 666 




406 — 835 


§99. 


320 — 667 


$108. 


407 — 836 


284 — 683 


321 — 668 


364 — 780 


408 — 837 


285 — 684 


a— 669 


365 — 780 




286 — 685 


b— 670 


366 — 781 


$113. 


1— t586 


322 — 671 


367 — 782 


409 — 840 


2— 687 


323 — 672 


389 — 783 


410 — 841 


3— 688 


324 — 673 


370 — 784 


412 — 842 


4— 689 


325 — 675 


371 — 785 


413 — 843 


n.— 690 


326 — 674 


372 — 786 


415 — 809 


287 a— 692 


327 — 676 


373 — 788 


416 — 809 


b— 693 


328 — 677 


374 — 789 


417 — 810 


288 — 694 




375 — 790 


418 — 813 


289 — 695 


$104. 


376 — 791 


419 — 805 


290 — 696 


329 — 709 




420 — 806 


291 — 697 


330 _ 710 


$109. 


421 — - 807 


292 — 698 




377 1— 814 


422 — 808 


293 — 699 


§105. 


3— 838 


423 — 740 


294 — 700 


331 __ 744 




424 — 741 


295 — 701 




$110. 


425 — 742 


296 — 702 


$106. 


378 — 870 


426 — 743 


297 — 703 


332 — 751 


379 — 871 




298 — 704 


333 — 752 


380 — 871 


$114. 


299 — 705 


334 — 753 




427 — 848 


300 — 706 


335 — 754 


$111. 


428 — 849 


n. 1— 707 


336 — 755 


382 — 860 


429 — 850 


301 — 708 


337 — 756 


383 — 861 


430 — 851 




339 — 757 


384 — 862 


431 — 852 


$100. 


340 — 758 


385 — 863 


432 — 853 


302 — 633 


341 _ 759 


386 — 865 






343 __ 860 


387 — 866 


$115. 


$101. 


344 _ 761 


388 — 867 


435 — 711 


303 — 634 


345 — 762 


389 — 868 




304 — 635 


347 _ 763 


390 — 869 


$116. 


305 — 636 


348 — 764 




436 — 712 


306 — 637 




$112. 


437 — 712 


307 — 638 


$107. 


391 — 818 


438 — 713 


308 — 639 


349 — 765 


392 — 819 


439 — 714 


309 — 640 


350 — 766 


393 — 820 


440 — 715 


310 — 641 


351 — 767 


394 __ 821 


441 — 716 


311 — 642 


352 — 768 


395 — 822 


442 — 717 




353 — 769 


396 n.— 823 


443 — 718 


§ 102. 


354 — 770 


397 — 824 


444 — 720 


312 — 643 


355 — 771 


398 — 825 


445 — 721 


313 — 644 


S56 — 772 


399 — 826 


n.2— 722 


314 — 645 


• 358 — 773 


400 — 828 


446 — 723 



xu 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



B. B. & M. 

447 — 724 



$117. 

448 - 

449 - 

450 - 
451 

453 - 

454 - 

%H8. 

455 - 

456 - 

457 - 

458 ■ 

459 ■ 

460 ■ 
461 



973 

975 
976 
977 
979 
980 



872 
923 
924 
925 
926 
927 
928 



— 918, 9 



\119 

432 

4G3 —917-20 

464 — 921 

465 — 922 



5 120. 

466 - 

467 - 

468 - 

469 - 
n. 1- 

470 - 

471 - 

472 - 

473 - 

474 - 

475 - 

478 - 

479 - 

1121. 

480 - 

481 - 

482 - 

483 - 

484 - 

486 - 

487 - 



894 
895 
896 
897 
898 
899 
900 
901 
902 
903 
904 
905 
906 



90* 

908 
909 
910 
880 
882 
823 



B. 

489 
490 
491 
492 
493 
494 
495 
496 
497 
498 
499 
500 



B. &M. 

— 793 

— 794 

— 795 

— 796 

— 797 

— 798 

— 799 

— 800 

— 801 

— 802 

— 804 

— 803 



123 


» 




501 


— 


855 


502 


— 


856 


503 


— 


857 


504 


— 


858 


505 


— 


859 


507 


— 


947 



$124. 

508 - 

509 - 

510 - 

511 - 

512 - 

513 - 



734 
735 

736 
737 
738 
739 



$122. 
483 — 792 



$125. 

514 — 911 

515 — 912 

516 — 913 
518 — 915 



$126. 



519 
520 
521 
522 
523 
524 
525 
526 
528 
529 
530 
531 
532 



■1075 
—1075 
—1075 
—1075 
—1075 
—1075 
—1075 

— 732 

— 844 

— 878 
—1074 

— 847 

— 940 



B. 

§12S< 
535 
536 
538 
539 

540 - 

$129. 

542 - 

543 - 

544 - 

545 - 

546 - 

$180. 

"547 - 

548 - 

549 - 

550 - 

551 - 

552 - 

553 - 

554 - 

555 - 

556 - 

557 ■ 

558 - 

559 - 

560 - 

561 - 

562 - 

564 • 

$131. 

565 - 

566 • 

567 ■ 

568 - 
569 

570 ■ 
571 
572 

$132. 

573 ■ 

574 

575 • 

576 ■ 

577 • 

578 ■ 

579 ■ 



B. & M. 

— 889 

— 890 

— 891 

— 892 

— 893 



873 
874 

875 
876 
877 



931 

932 
933 
935 
936 
936 
938 
938 
939 
941 
942 
943 
944 
945 
946 
947 
948 



949 
951 
952 
953 
954 
955 
956 
957 



958 
959 
960 
961 
962 
963 
929 



B. 

580 



B. & M. 
- 930 



\133. 

581 — 884 

582 — 799 
584 — 886 

1134. 



585 
586 
587 
588 
589 
590 



— 996 

— 997 

— 997 

— 998 

— 999 
—1000 

591 1—1001 
2—1002 
3—1003 
4—1004 

$135. 

592 —1005 



593 
594 
595 
596 
597 
598 
599 
600 



—1006 
—1007 
—1008 
—1009 
—1010 
—1011 
—1012 
— 870 



\ 136. 

602 - 

603 - 

604 - 

605 - 

606 - 

607 - 

608 - 

609 - 

610 - 

611 ■ 

613 - 

614 - 

615 - 

616 - 



981 

982 
982 
984 
985 
987 
988 
989 
991 
992 
993 
993 
994 
995 



§ 137. 

618 —1163 

619 —1164 

620 —1172 

621 —1167 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



Xlll 



B. 


B. & M. 


B. B. &■ M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. 


B. &M. 


623 


—1173 


650 —1291 


677 7—1154 


721 


—1370 






651 —1295 


678 —1133 


722 


—1371 


§ 138 


652 —1296 


679 —1159 


723 


—1372 


624 


1—1079 


653 —1296 F 


680 —1137 


724 


—1373 




2—1261 


654 —1296 I 




725 


—1373 




3—1275 


655 —1255 


$146. 


726 


—1374 




4—1274 


n.— 1257 


681 —1343 


727 


—1375 




5—1279 


656 —1291 


682 —1343 


728 


—1376 








683 —1358 


729 


—1376 


§ 139 


§ 142. 


684 —1357 






625 


1—1178 


657 1—1110 


685 —1355 


$150 






2—1193 


2—1113 


686 —1315 


730 


—1377 




3—1180 


3—1114 


687 —1314 


731 


—1378 




4—1265, 7 




n.- -1304 


732 


—1379 


626 


—1174 


§ 143. 


688 —1350 


733 


—1380 






658 —1118 


689 —1348 


734 


—1381 


§ 140 




690 —1349 


735 


—1382 


627 


—1205 


$144. 


691 — 966 


736 


—1383 




1-1205, 18 


659 1—1119 


692 — 967 








1st 1220 


3—1121 


693 —1344 


$151 


• 




2d 1207 


4—1122 


n.— 9G9 


737 


—1384 




3d 1208 


5—1119 


694 —1351 


738 


—1385 




4th 1222 


7—1123 


695 — 972 


739 


—1386 




2-1265-79 


8—1125 


696 — 971 


740 


—1387 




3—1282 


660 —1147 




741 


—1388 




4-1238-41 


663 —1148 


$147. 


742 


—1389 




5—1182 


664 —1149 


698 —1319 


743 


—1390 




n.— 1186 


665 —1138 


699 —1307 


744 


—1391 


628 


—1189 


666 —1142 


700 —1305 


745 


—1392 


629 


—1237 


667 —1150 


702 —1327 


746 


—1393 


630 


—1247 


668 n. 2-1132 


703 —1332 


747 


—1394 


631 


—1244 


n. 3-1131 


704 —1337 


748 


—1395 


632 


—1204 


669 —1137 


705 —1340 


749 


—1396 


633 


—1215 




706 —1331 


750 


—1357 


634 


—1291 


$145. 

670 —1135 


707 —1322 

708 —1324 


751 


—1398 


§ 141 


n.— 1138 


709 —1329 


$152 




636 


—1227 


671 —1136 


710 —1325 


753 


—1399 


637 


—1227 


672 —1136 


711 —1330 


754 


—1400 


638 


—1229 


673 —1136 




755 


—1401 


639 


—1229 


675 —1145 


$148. 


756 


—1402 


641 


—1226 


676 —1155 


712 —1360 


757 


—1403 


642 


. —1212 


n.— 1158 


713 —1361 


758 


—1404 


643 


1—1226 


677 —1153 


714 —1363 


759 


—1405 


1 


2—1221 


1—1209 


715 -1214 


760 


—1406 




3—1220 


2—1223 


716 —1365 


761 


—1407 




4—1212 


3—1208 


717 —1367 


762 


— 140S 


645 


—1251 


n.— 1202 


718 —1368 


763 


—1409 


646 


—1250 


4—1222 




764 


—1410 


647 


—1253 


5—1204 


§ 149. 


765 


—1411 


648 


—1290 


6—1258 


720 —1369 


766 


—1412 



XIV 



TABLE OF CORRESPONDING NUMBERS. 



B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. B. & M. 


B. 


767 —1413 


805 —1447 


834 —1488 


869 


768 —1414 


806 —1448 


835 —1488 


870 


769 —1415 


807 • —1449 


836 —1489 


871 


770 —1416 


808 —1450 


837 —1490 




771 —1417 


809 —1451 


838 —1491 


§16 


772 —1417 


810 —1452 


839 —1492 


872 


773 —1418 


811 —1453 


840 —1493 


873 




812 —1454 


841 —1494 


874 


§155. 




842 —1495 


875 


774 —1419 


§158. 


843 —1496 


876 


775 —1420 


813 —1455 


844 —1497 


877 




814 —1456 


845 —1497 


878 


§154. 


815 —1457 


846 —1498 


879 


776 —1421 






880 


777 —1422 


§159. 


§162. 


881 




816 1—1460 


847 —1499 


882 


§155. 


2—1461 


848 —1500 


883 


778 —1423 


3—1462 


849 —1501 


884 


779 —1424 


4—1463 


850 —1502 


885 


780 —1425 


5—1464 


851 —1503 


886 


781 —1426 


6—1465, 6 


852 —1504 


887 


782 —1426 


7—1467 


853 —1505 


888 


783 —1427 


8—1468 


854 —1506 


889 


784 —1428 


9—1469 




890 


785 —1428 

786 —1428 

787 —1429 

788 —1430 


817 3—1470 

§160. 

818 —1471 


§163. 

855 —1507 

856 —1508 

857 —1509 

858 —1510 


891 
892 
893 
894 


789 —1431 


819 —1472 

820 —1472 


895 

896 


§156. 


821 —1473 




897 


790 —1432 


822 1—1474 


§104. 


898 


791 —1433 


2—1475 


859 —1511 


899 


792 —1434 


3—1476 


860 —1512 


900 


793 —1435 


5—1477 


861 —1513 


901 


794 —1436 


823 —1478 


862 — 1514 


902 


795 —1437 


824 —1479 


863 —1515 


903 


796 —1438 


825 —1480 


864 —1516 


904 


797 —1439 


826 —1481 




905 


798 —1440 


827 —1481 


§ 165. 


906 


799 —1441 


828 —1482 


865 —1517 


907 




829 —1483 




908 


§157. 


830 —1484 


§166. 


909 


800 —1442 


831 —1485 


866 —1518 


910 


801 —1443 


832 —1486 


867 —1519 


911 


802 —1444 






912 


803 —1445 


§161. 


§167. 


913 


804 —1446 


833 —1487 


868 —1520 


914 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



1* — Latest Grammar teaches the art of speak- 
ing, reading, or writing the Latin language with 
propriety. 

It is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography ', 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2. — Orthography treats of letters, and the 
mode of combining them into syllables and words. 



LETTERS. 

3* The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same as those 
of the English Alphabet, but without the w. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, w, y. Of these y is found only in words of 
Greek origin. 

4:. In regard to the strength or lightness of their sound, the strictly 
Latin vowels should be arranged thus : a, e, a, o, u. In order to perceive 
this, they should be sounded as they are in Italian, or according to the 
so-called Continental method, spoken of in 14. 

5* The union of two vowels in one sound is called a Diphthong. Of 
these we have in Latin ae (as), oe (03), aw, and in a few words eu, ei, ui } yi. 

After g and q> and sometimes after s, u before another vowel in the 



2 



LETTERS. 



same syllable, does not form another diphthong with it, but is to be re- 
garded as an appendage of the preceding consonant, having nearly the 
force of w, as in the English words, linguist, quick, persuade ; thus, lingua, 
sanguis, qui, quae, quod, quum, suadeo, are pronounced as if written lingwa, 
sangwis, kwi, kwce, kwod, kwum, swadeo. So also after c and h in cui and 
huic, pronounced in one syllable, as if written cwi or kwi, and hwie. 

Two vowels standing together in dhTerent syllables, pronounced in quick 
succession, resemble the diphthong in sound, and, among the poets, are 
often run together into one syllable ; thus de-in, de-inde, pro4nde, etc., in 
two and three syllables, are pronounced in one and two, dein, deinde, 
proinde, etc. 

G* The Consonants may be arranged as in the following scheme, 
which places them in order according to the vocal organ which is mainly 
instrumental in forming them : 



Double. 



Palatals or Gutturals. 
Labials 

Linguals or Dentals . 





Mutes. 




Liquids. 


Spirants 


hard, 
tenues. 


soft, 
mediae. 


aspirate, 
aspiratae. 






c, k, q. 

P- 

t. 


g- 
b. 
d. 


Ch. 

ph, f. 

th. 


m. 
1, n, r. 


V. 

s. 



X. 

z. 



7. The Mutes are those consonants which are formed by the most 
active interference with the passage of air on the part of the vocal organs. 
They are so called because the passage of air is stopped or interrupted. 

The Liquids are so called because of their fluency, or the ease with 
which they combine with other consonants. 

The Spirants (or breathed letters) form an intermediate class be- 
tween vowels and consonants. In accordance with this we find that the 
Komans used only one character (i) to represent both i and j, and one (u) 
to represent both u and v. 

The Double Consonant x is formed by the union of c or g with s. 
Z is formed of t or d and s, but is found only in words of Greek origin. 

The Aspirates ch, ph, th, are found for the most part in Greek or 
other foreign words. But few Latin words contain them — brachium, inchoo, 
trinmphus, Cethegus. 

K is used only in a few words before a : as, kalendae, Karthago, Kaeso, 
and is often in these represented by c. 

MARKS AND CHARACTERS. 

8. The marks and characters used in Latin Grammar, or in writing 
Latin, are the following : 

Placed over a vowel, shows it to be short. 



PEOKUHCIATIOK. 3 

Placed over a vowel, shows it to be long. 

- Placed over a vowel, shows it to be short or long. 

* Is called Diuresis, and shows that the vowel over which it is placed 
does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel, but belongs to a dif- 
ferent syllable ; as aer, pronounced d-er. 

s The circumflex shows that the syllable over which it stands has been 
contracted, and is consequently long, as nuntidrunt fo.r nuniiaverunt dimi- 
cdssent for dimicdvissent ; or that the vowel over which it is placed has its 
long open sound ; as, pennd. 

The grave accent is sometimes placed over particles and adverbs, to 
distinguish them from other words consisting of the same letters ; as, quod, 
a conjunction, " that," to distinguish it from quod, a relative, " which." 

The acute accent is used to mark the accented syllable of a word; 
as, tuba, dom'inus. 

' Apostrophe is written over the place of a vowel cut off from the end 
of a word ; as, men' for mine. 

PUNCTUATION. 

9, The different divisions of a sentence are marked by certain charac- 
ters called Points. 

The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks 
employed are the Comma ( , ) ; Semicolon ( ; ) ; Colon ( 5 ) ; Period ( . ) ; 
Interrogation ( 1 ) ; Exclamation ( ! ). 

The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients, was a point (.), 
which denoted pauses of a different length, according as it stood at the top, 
the middle, or the bottom of the line — that at the top denoting the shortest, 
and that at the bottom the longest pause. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

10. In the United States, two systems of the pronunciation of Latin 
are prevalent, which are generally known as the English and the Conti- 
nental methods. It is probable that neither of these represents the ancient 
pronunciation of the language, though it is believed that this has been 
ascertained with a considerable degree of exactness. As some teachers 
prefer to adopt the English, and others the Continental system, it is neces- 
sary to make a few remarks on each. 

The English System. 

11. — The fundamental principle of this method of pro- 
nunciation is that every Latin word is to be pronounced as 
the same combination of letters would be sounded if it were 



4 DIVISION OF WORDS. 

an English word. It must, however, be remembered that 
there are no silent letters in Latin, and therefore, for ex- 
ample, monere must be pronounced as of three syllables, 
mon-e-re, and not as of two. 

Though it is believed that the above rule is sufficiant for all practical 
purposes, it may be well to add a few observations on the 

DIVISION OF WOEDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

12. — A Syllable is a distinct sound forming 
the whole of a word, or so much of it as can be 
sounded at once. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct 
vowel sounds. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 
A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 
A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable. 
A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final 
syllable; the one next the last is called the penult, and the 
syllable preceding that is called the antepenult. 

IS* — In Latin, every word has as many syllables as .there are separate 
vowels or diphthongs. Hence the following 

RULES. 

1. Two vowels coming together, and not forming a diphthong, must be 
divided ; as, De'-us, su'-us, au'-re-ics. 

2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid (l y r) between the last 
two vowels of a word, or between any two unaccented vowels, are joined to 
the last; as, pa'-TER, a?'-a-CER, aJ'-a-CRis, tol '-e-nl-bil '-i-us } per'"-e-G&i-na"- 
ti-o-nis. 

Exc. But tib-i and sib-i join it to the first. 

3. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid before an accented vowel, 
are joined to that vowel, and so also is a single consonant after it, except 
in the penult ; as, i-Tm'-e-ra, Hou'-i-nes. 

Exc. 1. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid, after a, e, o, ac- 
cented, and followed by e or i before a vowel, are joined to the latter ; as, 
sd-ci-ws, rdrDi-u8 y do-CE-o, pd-TRi-us. 



CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 5 

Exc. 2. A single consonant, or a mute . and a liquid after w, accented, 
must be joined to the following vowel ; as, mu-Li-er f tu-Ti-or, hb-BRi-cus. 

4. Any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid coming before or 
after an accented vowel, and also a mute and a liquid after an accented 
vowel (the penult and the exceptions to Kule 3 excepted), must be divided • 
as, tem-por '4-bus, lec'4um y tem'-po-rum y met'-ri-cus. 

Also gl, tl y and often d, after the penultimate vowel, or before the vowel 
of an accented syllable ; as, At -las, At Ian' -fades, ec4ec'-ta. 

5. If three consonants come between the vowels of any two syllables, 
the last two, if a mute and a liquid, are joined to the latter vowel ; as, 
con'4ra y am"-pli-a-vit; otherwise, the last only ; as, computus, re-demp'4or. 

6. A compound word is resolved into its constituent parts, if the first 
part ends with a consonant ; as, &B-es'-se y sub' -lit, iN'-I-£wr, cmcum' ~a-go. 
But if the first part ends with a vowel, it is divided like a simple word ; 
as, DEf'-e-ro } ml'-i-go, FRMs'-to. 



The Continental System. 

Id* — The so-called Continental method of pronuncia- 
tion of Latin is greatly preferable to the English, both 
because it harmonizes better with the quantity of the lan- 
guage, as settled by the rules of Prosody, and because, by 
giving one simple sound to each vowel, distinguishing the 
short and the long only by the duration of sounds, it is 
much more simple. The sound of the vowels, as pro- 
nounced alone or at the end of a syllable, is exhibited in 
the following — 

Table of Vowel and Diphthongal Sounds. 



Short a 


sounds like 


a 


in Jehovah, 


as amat. 


Long a 


like 


a 


in father, 


as fama. 


Short e 


like 


e 


in met, 


as petere. 


Long e 


like 


e y 


in they, 


as docere. 


Short! 


like 


i 


in uniform, 


as unitas. 


Long I 


like 


i 


in machine, 


as amicus. 


Short o 


like 





in polite, 


as indoles. 


Long o 


like 





in go, 


as pono. 


Short ii 


like 


u 


in popular, 


as populus. 



6 SOUNDS. 

Long u sounds like u in rule, or pure, as usu. 

ae or se ) n • a l ( Paean. 

> like ey in they, as 1 ^ , 

oe or ce ) J J 9 \ Phoebus 

au like ou in our, as aurura. 

eu like eu in feud, as eurus. 

ei like i in ice, as hei. 

Observations. 

1. The sound of the vowels a and e remains unchanged in all situations. 

2. The sound of i, o, and u, is slightly modified when followed by a 
consonant in the same syllable, and is the same whether the syllable is 
long or short. Thus modified, 

i sounds like i in sit, as mlttit. 

o like o in not, as poterat, forma. 

u like u in tub, as fruetiis. 

Note. — For the sound of u, before another vowel, after g, q, and some- 
times s, etc., see 5. 

3. The consonants are pronounced generally as in the English language. 
C and g are hard, as in the words cat, and got, before a, o, and u ; and c is 
soft like s, and g, like ,;, before e, i, y, ce, and ce. 

4. T and c, following or ending an accented syllable before i short, fol- 
lowed by a vowel, usually have the sound of sh ; as in nuniius or nuncius, 
patientia, socius ; pronounced nunshius, pashienshia, soshius. But t has 
not the sound of sh before I long, as tofius ; nor in such Greek words as 
Miltiades, Bozotia, JEgyptius ; nor when it is preceded by another t, or s, 
or x ; as Bruitii, ostium, mixtio, etc. ; nor, lastly, when ti is followed by 
the termination of the old infinitive passive in er, as in nltier, quatier. 

Note. — The soft sound of c before e, i, y, ce, and ce, adopted by all Eu- 
ropean nations, is evidently a deviation from the ancient pronunciation, 
according to which c was sounded hard, like h, or the Greek k, in all situ- 
ations. Ti sounding shi is a similar corruption, chiefly English, which it 
might perhaps be well to change by giving ti the same sound in all situ- 
ations ; as, arti, arti-um, arti-bus. 

5. S has always the sharp sound like ss, and never the soft sound like 
z ; or like s in as, peas, dose, etc. ; thus, nos, dominos^ rupes, not nose, 
dominose, rupese. 



15-16] QUALITY AND ACCENT. 7 

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
15. — A Figuke of speech is a deviation from 
the ordinary mode of writing words, or of their 
construction. 

The Figures which affect the orthography of words, 
are as follows : 

1st. Prosthesis prefixes a letter or syllable to a word ; as, tetulU for 
tulit. 

2d. Epetlthesis inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a word ; 
as, Timolus for Tmolus. 

3d. JParagoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; as, 
amarier for amarl, etc. 

4th. Aphceresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of a 
word ; as, brevisH or brevist for brevis est ; conia for ciconia. 

5th. Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word ; 
as, oraclum for ordculum ; amdrim for amdverim ; deum for deorum. 

6th. Apocope takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; as, 
men 1 for mine, die for dice, volup for volupe. 

7th. Antithesis substitutes one letter for another ; as, illi for olll, 
vult, vultis, for volt, voltis, contractions for vol'zt, volitis. 

8th. JKetathesis changes the order of letters in a word ; as, pistris 
for pristis. 

9th. Tmesis separates the parts of a compound word by inserting 
another word between them ; as, quce me cumque vacant ierrce, for quce- 
cumque me, etc. 

QUANTITY AND ACCENT. 

16. — Quantity is the measure of a syllable in 

respect of the time required in pronouncing it. 

In respect of quantity, a syllable is either long or 
short; and a long syllable is considered equal to two 
short ones. 

GENERAL RULES. 

Note. — In this book only the long voivels will be marlced ; 

if a vowel have no mark over it, it is to be pronounced short. 



8 QUANTITY AND ACCENT. [17-23 

17. — A syllable is counted long, 

(1) if its vowel sound is a diphthong, as aurum, poena. 

(2) if its vowel sound is followed by a double conso- 
nant (x, z), hjj y or by any two consonants except a mute 
followed by I or r, as consul, penna, traxit, major. 

18. — A syllable is counted short if its vowel sound is 
followed by another vowel ; as, vi-a, de-us, vi-ae. 

19* — A syllable is counted common, i. e. either long 
or short, if its vowel sound, being naturally short, is fol- 
lowed by a mute with I or r; as, cerebrum or cerebrum. 

[For special rules on this subject, see Prosody.] 

20. — Accent is a special stress or force of voice on a 
particular syllable of a word, by which that syllable is dis- 
tinguished from the rest. 

Every word of more than one syllable has an accent ; as, Deus, 7i6mo, 
dominies, tolerdbilis. 

The last syllable of a word never has the accent. In a word of two syl- 
lables, the accent is always on the first. In a "word of three or more sylla- 
bles, if the penult is long, the accent is on the penult ; as, sermonis, amd~ 
re'mus ; but if the penult is short, the accent is on the antepenult ; as, 
fddlis, du'eere, pectoris, pectoribus. But contracted genitives and vocatives 
in i (for il, ie) have, according to Gellius, the accent always on the penult : 
Virgill, ingenl. 

21* — An enclitic syllable {que, ve, ne, etc.), being considered, in pro- 
nunciation, part of the word to which it is annexed, generally changes the 
place of the accent by increasing the number of syllables ; as, virum, vi- 
rurnque ; or adds another accent on the last syllable ; as, dominus, dvtni- 
nusve. 

22. — A word of one syllable is properly without an accent ; but if an 
enclitic is annexed, it becomes a dissyllable, and takes the accent on the 
first syllable ; as, til, tune. 

23. — In English, an accented syllable is always long, or rather the ac- 
cent makes it long ; but in Latin, the accent makes no change in the quan- 
tity of its syllable, and, except in the penult, is as often on a short as on a 
long syllable ; as, fdciles, petere, virum. 

In reading Latin, it is important, as much as possible, to distinguish 
accent from quantity — a matter not without difficulty to those accustomed 



24-25] ETYMOLOGY. 9 

to a language in which accent and quantity always coincide. It should be 
remembered that in Latin, the accent does not make a syllable long as in 
English, neither does the want of it make the syllable short. Homines, for 
example, should not be pronounced homines ; and care should be taken to 
distinguish in reading the verbs lego and lego ; — the noun populus (the 
people) from populus (a poplar) ; — or the verbs furis, legis, regis, from 
the genitives furis, legis, regis. The accented short syllable should be 
pronounced with greater force of voice, but be preserved short still ; and 
the long syllable, whether accented or not, should be made long. 



PART SECOND. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



24. — Etymology treats of the different sorts 
of words, their various modifications, and their 
derivations. 



WORDS. 

25. — 1. In respect of Formation, words are 
either Primitive or Derivative / Simple or Com- 
pound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other in the same lan- 
guage ; as, puer, boy ; bonus, good ; pater, father. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another word ; as, 
pueritia, boyhood ; bonitas, goodness ; paternus, fatherly. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other word ; as, 
pius, pious ; doceo, I teach ; verio, I turn. 

A Compound word is one made up of two or more simple words; 
as, impius, impious ; dedoceo, I unteach ; animadverto, I observe. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either Declinable or 
Indeclinable. 



10 PAPwTS OF SPEECH. [26-30 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of form, to 
express the different relations of gender, number, case, etc., usually termed, 
in Grammar, Accidents. 

Ati Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of form. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are di- 
vided into different classes, called Parts of Speech. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 
26. — The Pakts of Speech in the Latin lan- 
guage are eight, viz. : 

1. Noun or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, 
declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection, un- 
declined. 

THE NOtTN". 

27. — A Nouisr is the name of any person, 
place, or thing ; as, Cicero, Cicero ; Roma, Rome ; 
Tiomo, man ; liber, book. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

28. — A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, Cicero, Cicero ; Aprllis, April ; Roma, 
Rome. 

Obs. A proper noun applied to more than one, becomes a common 
noun ; as, duodecim Ccesares, the twelve Caesars. 

29. — A Common Noun is the name applied to all 
things of the same sort, or of the same class ; as, vir, a 
man ; domus, a house ; liber, a book. 

Note. — A Proper Noun is the name of an individual only, and is used 
to distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A Common 
Noun is the name of a class of objects, and is equally applicable to all the 
individuals contained in it. 

30. — Under this class may be ranged, 

1. Collective Nouns 9 or nouns of multitude, which signify one 



31-35] ACCIDENTS OF NOUNS. 11 

thing which contains many individuals ; as, populus, a people ; exercitus, 
an army. 

2. Abstract Nouns 9 which designate qualities ; as, bonitas, good- 
ness ; dulcedo, sweetness. 

3. Material Nouns, which designate materials ; as, aurum, gold ; 
aes, copper. 

ACCIDENTS OF NOUNS. 

To Latin nouns belong Person, Gender, Nitm- 
her, and Case. 

1. Person. 

SI. — Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of nouns 
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person or 
thing addressed, or the person or thing spoken of. Hence 

There are three Persons, called First, Second, and Third. 

2. Gender. 

32. — Gender means the distinction of nouns with 
regard to Sex. 

There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Femi- 
nine, and the Neuter. 

Of some nouns, the gender is determined by their signification ; — of 
others, by their termination. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE GENDER OF NOUNS, ACCORDING TO 

SIGNIFICATION. 

33. — I. Masculine. 

(1) Names of male animals : vir, man ; poeta, poet ; arils, ram. 

(2) Names of rivers, winds, months : Tiberis, the Tiber ; notus, the south 
wind ; Aprllis, April. 

34. — II. Feminine. 

(1) Names of female animals : soror, sister ; leaina, lioness. 

(2) Names of trees, and many names of countries, islands, and towns: 
mains, apple tree; Epirus, Epirus ; Delos, Delos; Roma, Rome. 

35.— III. Neuter. 

(1) All indeclinable nouns: fas, right; gummi, gum. 

(2) The infinitive mood : scire tuum, your knowledge. 



12 ACCIDENTS OF NOUNS. [36-12 

(3) All words used merely to designate their own sound (mdteridliter): 
hoc ipsum diu, this very word " diu," arx est monosyllabum, " arx " is a 
monosyllable. 

GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO TERMINATION. 

But in most cases the gender of nouns is determined by the endings of 
their declensions (or of their stems) ; and these sometimes cause a deviation 
from the above rules. For example : 

SO. — (1). These names of rivers are feminine by their ending : 
Allia, Albula, Duria, Lethe, Styx ; and some of barbarous origin ending 
in r are neuter 9 as Maver. 

37.— (2). Some nouns improperly referring to men, are feminine 
or neuter : mancipium, neut. a slave (properly a piece of property), vigi- 
liae, fern, sentinels, auxilia, neut. auxiliary troops. 

38. — (3). Many names of countries, and some of towns, islands, and 
trees, take the gender of their endings : Pontus, Delphi, JSulmo, 
masc Latium, Ilium, neut. ; oleaster, the wild olive, masc. 

39. — Some nouns are masculine or feminine, according to 
their reference, and are therefore called common. Such are : adolescens, 
a young man or woman ; affinis, a male or female relation by marriage ; 
civis, a male or female citizen ; sacerdos, priest or priestess. 

40. — Mobile nouns (mobilia) are those which have different forms 
to indicate distinction of sex: filius, son, fllia, daughter; rex, king, 
reglna, queen ; magister, master, magistra, mistress ; gallics, cock, gal- 
Una, hen. 

41. — Epicene nouns have but one grammatical gender, but are ap- 
plied to individuals of both sexes. Thus, corvus, raven, passer, sparrow, 
are always masculine ; vulpes, fox, aguila, eagle, are always feminine. If 
the sex is to be discriminated, the adjective mas cr masculus, male ; or 
femina, female, must be joined with them. Thus: anas mascula, the 
drake; anguis femina, a female snake. 

3. Number. 

4:2. — Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. 

Latin nouns have two numbers, the SifiguldV and 
the Plural. The Singular denotes one; the Plural, 
more than one. 

Some nouns in the plural form denote only one ; as, Athence, Athens, 
others signify one or more ; as, nuptice, a marriage, or marriages. 



43] case. 13 

4. Case. 

Case expresses the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. 

Latin nouns have six cases, the Nominative, Genitive, 
Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

Of these six cases, the Nominative and Vocative, which are for the most 
part the same in form, were called by the old grammarians casus recti, 
" upright cases," and the other four, casus obliqui, " oblique cases." 

43. — The meaning and use of the eases must 
be fully learned from the Syntax. At present it is enough 
to say that 

The Nominative is the case of the subject of an 

affirmation : Caesar fights. 

The Vocative is the case of address : speak, O 
Caesar. 

The Accusative is the case of the object of an ac- 
tion : Brutus kills Caesar. 

The Genitive is the case of limitation. Go to the 
house of Caesar. 

The Dative is the case of interest. I give a crown 
to Caesar. 

The Ablative is the case of separation. He comes 
from Caesar. 

The signs of the oblique cases, or the prepositions by which they 
are usually rendered into English, are the following, viz. : Genitive, of; 
Dative, to or for ; Vocative, ; Ablative, with, from, in, by, etc., as in 
the following scheme : 





Singular. 




PluraL 


Nom. 


a king. | 


Nom. 


kings. 


Gen. 


of a king. 


Gen. 


of kings. 


Dat. 


to or for a king. 


Dat. 


to or for kings. 


Ace. 


a king. 


i Ace. 


kings. 


Voc. 


king. 


Voc. 


kings. 


Abl. 


with, from, in, or by a king. 


I Abl. 


with, from, in, or by kings. 



u 


U 


in -2, 


u 


« 


in -is, 


« 


« 


in -&s, 


cc 


CC 


in —^5" 



14: DECLENSION. [44-46 

DECLENSION. 
44. — Declension is the mode of forming the 
several cases, etc. 

In Latin, there are five declensions, called the First, 
Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth. 

The declensions are usually distinguished from one 
another by the termination of the genitive singular ; thus, 

The first declension has the genitive singular in -ae, 
The second 
The third 
The fourth 
The fifth 

There are three words of the fifth declension (148) which have the geni- 
tive ending in el with the e short. But it is necessary in the above state- 
ment to mark the e long, in order to prevent the learner from supposing 
that many nouns of the second declension (from nominatives in eus) y such 
as calcei, belong to the fifth declension. 

4:5* — This mode of distinguishing the declensions is given in accord- 
ance with the practice of most grammars. The real ground of the distinc- 
tion, however, is that the words which fall under the several declensions 
have stems (called by the German grammarians crude or uninflected 
forms) ending in different letters. Upon this principle, which is far sim- 
pler and more scientific, the five declensions will be distinguished thus : 

The first comprises words with stems ending in a-: mensa-. 

The second " " " " ©-: servo-. 

The third " " " " i- or a consonant : avi-. 

The fourth " " " " jaL-\gradu-. 

The fifth " " " " ©-rocie-. 

In the subsequent discussion of the five declensions, while the ordinary 
arrangement will not be departed from, the stems of the examples declined 
will be given in parentheses, and marked by a hyphen, thus, (gradu-), to 
indicate that the word has so far nothing expressive of its relations to 
other words. 

46. — All that part of a noun, or of an adjective, which 
precedes the termination of the genitive singular, is called 



47-49] 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



15 



the Thewie* All that follows the theme, in any case or 
number, is called the C&se- ending, or Termination. 

It must be observed that the theme, as here defined, is not the same as 
the stem, since in all the vowel declensions, the so-called Cease-ending in- 
cludes the vowel of the stem. Thus ; in the word mensae, mens- is the 
theme and ae the case-ending, but the stem is mensa-, and the a of the stem 
is that which appears in the case-ending ae. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

47. — 1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomina- 
tive, accusative, and vocative, alike in both numbers, and 
these cases, in the plural, end always in a. 

2. The vocative, for the most part in the singular, and 
always in the plural, is like the nominative. 

3. The dative and the ablative plural are alike, 

4. Proper names for the most part want the plural. 

48* — The difference between these declensions will be 
seen at one view in the following 

Table of Case-endings. 
Singular. 

Third. Fourth. 



n: 


a, 


o. 


se, 


D. 


se, 


Ac. 


am, 


V. 


a, 


Ah. 


a. 



Second, 
M. 
us,er, 



N. 
um. 



um, 
e,er, 
6. 



2T. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



se, 


h 


arum, 


orum. 


is, 
as, 


is, 

OS, 


se, 
is, 


I, 

is. 



um, 
um, 



a, 



a. 



M. 



IS, 

h 

em. 



N. M. 



N. 



e or l. 
Plural. 



US, 


u, 


tis, 


us, 


Ul, 


% 


um, 


% 


us, 


% 


u, 


u. 



es, m 


a,ia, 


um,ium, 


ibus, 




es, 


a,ia, 


es, 


a,ia, 


ibus. 





us, 


ua, 


uum, 
ibus or 


ubus 


us, 


ua, 


us, 
ibus or 


ua, 
ubus 



Fifth. 



es, 
el, 
el, 

era, 
es, 



es, 

erum, 

ebus, 

es, 
es, 
ebus. 



4.Q. — In this table the case-endings are arranged in the order usually 
adopted in Grammars. But the points of similarity and difference are more 



16 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



[50, 51 



clearly brought out if placed in the order used by Prof. Madvig, of Copen- 
hagen. In the second, third, and fourth declensions, in which neuter nouns 
occur, the case-endings placed below the brace are common to all genders. 
The case-endings which are alike are only stated once, their repetition being 
marked by ". It is believed that teachers who will make use of this table, 
in teaching the declensions, will find the superior advantage of the ar- 
rangement. 

Where the table gives two forms for a case, the particular facts are to 
be looked for in the remarks on the separate declensions. Special attention 
is directed to paragraphs 60, 83, 90, 99, 114, 109 to 121, 139, 140, 149. 

It is to be particularly noted that in the cases of all the stems ending in 
vowels, the endings given include the stem-vowel. 



50. 


Dec. I. 


Dec. II. 


Declension III. 


Dec. IV. 


Dec. Y. 


Thestewiendsin 


a- 


o- 




a consonant or i- 


11- 


e-. 






m.f. 


n. 


m. f. n. 


m. f. n. 


m. f. n. 




Examples. 






it 


am. 
flash. 


# ;3 


. step, 
horn. 


i 




s 


S 


*0 g 


GO CO 


B 8 




r 


§ 


*< 


s * 


i** .** 


r 

'2 
>3 


SINGULAR. 


DQ 

1 


> 
03 




trab-, t 
fulgur- 


r f 
'I I 


gradu- 
cornu- 


Nom. 


a 


us (er,ir 


)um 


s(?) - 


is (es) e 


us u 


es 


Yoc. (O) 


a 


e " 


U 


u u 


u u 


U it 


« 


Ace. 


am 


um " 


u 


em " 


em " 


um " 


em 






V 


1 


V. J 


V X 


V. 7 






Y 




Y 


Y* 


Y 




Gen. (of) 


ae 


1 




is 


is 


US 


el (e) 


Dat. (to, for) 


u 


6 




I 


I 


ui (u) 


K 


Abl. (by, from) 


a 


u 




e 


e(i) 


u 


e 


PLURAL. 
















Nom. 


ae 


1 


a 


es a 


es ia 


us ua 


es 


Voc. (O) 


u 


u 


u 


u u 


u u 


a u 


u 


Ace. 


as 


OS 


u 


u u 


u u 


u u 


a 






v 


J 


V J 


^ j 


V y 1 






y ' 




r 


Y 




Gen. (of) 


firum. 


orum 


um 


ium 


uum 


erum 


Dat. (to, for) 


Is 


is 




ibus 


ibus 


ibus (ubus) 


ebus 


Abl. (by, from) 


t< 


u 




if 


u 


it 


ct 



FIRST DECLENSION. 
SI. — Latin Nouns of this declension have the nom- 
inative-ending a. But nouns adopted from the Greek 
have nominatives ending in e, as, es. 






52] 



GEEEK NOUNS. 



17 



Penna, a feather, — later, a pen. Fern, (penna-). 
Singular. Plural. 



JV. penna, 
G. penna?, 
D. penna?, 
Ac. pennam, 
V. penna, 
Ab. penna, 



a pen. 

of a pen. 

to or for a pen. 

a pen. 

pen. 

from, with a pen. 



Via, a way. 



Singular. 



N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 



via, 
via?, 
via?, 
viam, 

via, 



Ah. via, 



a way. 

of a way. 

to a way. 

a way. 

way. 

with, etc., a way. 



iV. penna?, 
G. pennarioit, 
D. pennxs, 
Ac. pennas, 
V. penna?, 
Ab. pennls, 

Fern. (via-). 

Plural. 
JV. via?, 
G. viaram, 

D. vils, 
Ac. vias, 
V. via?, 
Ab. vils, 



pens. 

of pens. 

to or for pens. 

pens. 

pens. 

from, with pens. 



ways. 

of ways. 

to ways. 

ways. 

ways. 

with, etc., ways. 



Ala, 
Ara, 
Area, 



Causa, 



a vjing. 
an altar. 
a chest. 
a cottage, 
a cause. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Faba, 

HOra, 

Lltera, 

Mensa, 

Norma, 



a bean, 
an hour, 
a letter. 
a table, 
a rule. 



Virga, a rod. 



Ripa, 

Sella, 

Tuba, 

Turba, 

Unda, 



a bank, 
a seat, 
a trumpet, 
a crowd, 
a wave. 



GREEK NOUNS. 

52* — Greek ^Nbuns in as, es, and e, are declined as 
follows, in the singular number : 



^Eneas, JEneas. 
N. iEneas, 
G. Mnese 9 
D. iEnea?, 
Ac. JEneam, or an, 
V. ^Enea, 
Ab. JEnea. 



Anchises, Anchises. 
iV 7 ". Anchises, 
G. Anchlsa?, 
D. Anchlsa?, 
Ac. Anchis€a, 
V. AnchlsS (a), 
Ab. Anchlse (a). 



PenelopS, Penelope. 
N". PenelopS, 
G. Penelopes, 
D. Penelopa?, 
Ac. Penelopen, 
V. PenelopS, 
Ab. Penelope. 



Like JErieas, decline Boreas, the north wind ; Midas, a king of Phrygia, 
— also, Gorgids, Messias. 

Like Anchises, decline Alcides, a name of Hercules ; cometes, a comet ; 
— also, Priamides, Tydides, dynastes, satrapes. 



li* EXERCISES. [53-57 

Like Pmelope, decline Circe, a famous sorceress ; Cybele, the mother of 
the gods ; epitome, an abridgment ; grammaiice, grammar ; — also, aloe, 
crambe, Danae, JPhomice. 

Obs. 1. When the plural of proper names occurs, it is like the plural of 
penna ; thus, Atridce, Atrldarum, etc. 

Obs. 2. Nouns in es have sometimes a in the vocative. They also some- 
times have the accusative in em by the third declension, and occasionally 
form the other cases, as if from stems in %-. 

Obs. 3. Many Greek nouns in e have also the regular Latin forms in a, 
as miisica, music, etc. 

53. — Gender. — Latin Nouns in a (stem a-) are 
feminine. But appellations of men, as nauta, a sailor; 
names of rivers (33) ; likewise Hadria, the Hadriatic ; 
cometa, a comet; planeta, a planet; and sometimes talpa, 
a mole, and dama, a fallow-deer, are masculine. 

Greets Nouns in as, es, are masculine ; those in e are 
feminine. 

IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS. 
54:. — Familia, " family," has commonly the gen. sing, in as, in 

connection with the words pater, father ; mater, mother ; filius, son ; and 
filia, daughter, and the two words are then often written as one, thus : 
paterfamilias, a father of a family. 

&&. — The poets use sometimes ai for ae in the gen. sing. : aulai 
for aulae, of a hail. 

SO. — The gen. plur. is sometimes shortened from arum into urn, 
particularly in compounds of cola- and gena-, as in caelicolum for caelicola- 
rum, of the inhabitants of heaven, and some nouns denoting measures, 
money, etc., drachmum for drachmarum, of drachmas. 

Sf. — The dat . and ahl. plur. have abus for is in dea, goddess, 
and fxlia, daughter, in order to distinguish them from the same cases of 
deus, god, and filius, son. So also in the fern, of duo, two ; ambo, both. 
The grammarians give corresponding forms from nata, daughter; equa, 
mare ; asina, she-ass ; anima, breath ; llberia, freedwoman ; but these are 
not found in good writers. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

[The words in the following exercises will be found in 51, 52.] 
1. Tell the case and number of the following words, and translate them 
accordingly: Penna, pennam, pennarum, pennls, penna, pennae; — aram, 



• 58-61] 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



19 



aris ; sellse, sella, sella, sellarum ; tubls, tubam, tubss ; litera, llterarum, 
pennis, aras, tubse, literis; — Penelopes, Penelopen, JEnean, Anchlses, 
Anchlsae, JEnea. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin : The pen, of pens, with 
pens, from a pen, in a pen, by pens ; from the altars ; of a trumpet; with 
letters ; a seat ; altar ; the seat of Penelope ; of iEneas ; with Anchises ; 
a trumpet ; from the altar; to a seat; with a pen; of the altars, etc., 
ad libitum, 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

&8. — Latifl Nouns of the second declension have 
in the nominative singular masculine, us, ev 9 iv 9 neuter, 
um. 

A few Greek Nouns have nom. sing. masc. in os 9 
neut. in on. 

39. — The stems of all these words end in o-, and the nominative sin- 
gular was formed from the stem by adding s, before which in most words 
the vowel o was changed into the duller sound u. Thus from servo-, slave, 
came nom. sing, servos, and afterwards servus. 

SO* — But if the liquid consonant r precede the o of the stem (as in 
pu'ero-, boy ; agro-, field ; viro-, man), nearly always the ending s was not 
added, but the final o was dropped. So nom. sing, pier, (agr) ager, vir. 
It is to be noticed that if there be no vowel before the r, an e is inserted, 
in order that the r may be properly articulated. 



6\Z.— 


CASE-ENDINGS. 




Masculine. 


Neuter. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. us, er, ir. 


N. I, 


jV. um, 


N. a, 


G. i, 


G. orum, 


G. I, 


G. orum, 


D. o, 


D. Is, 


D. o, 


D. is, 


Ac. um, 


Ac. os, 


Ac. um, 


Ac. a, 


V. e, er, ir, 


V. I, 


Y. um, 


V. a, 


Ab.o, 


Ab. is. 


Ab. o. 


Ab. is. 




Dominus, a lord, Masc. (domino-). 




Singular. 


Plural. 




JV. domimis, 


a lord. 


N". dominl, 


lords. 


G. domini, 


of a lord. 


G. dominorum, 


of lords. 


D. domino, 


to or for a lord. 


D. dominis, to 


or for lords. 


Ac. dominium, 


a lord. 


Ac. dominos, 


lords. 


V. domine, 


lord. 


V. dominl, 


lords. 


Ab. domino, 


with, etc., a lord. 


Ab. dominis, with, etc., lords. 



20 



BECOND DECLENSION. 



[62, 63 



Thus decline : 


Ventus (vento-), the wind. 


Fluvius (fluvio-), ., a river. 


Oculus (oculo-), the eye. 


Hortus (horto-), a garden. 


Annus (anno-), a year. 


Radius (radio-), a ray. 


Observe that nouns in us have the vocative in e : as, ventus, vente. 


Puer, a boy, Masc. (puero-). 


SiDgular. 


Plural 


JV. puer, a boy. 


iV. puerl, boys. 


G. puerl, of a boy. 


G. puerorum, of boys. 


D, puero, to or for a boy. 


D. puerls, to or for boys. 


Ac. puemm, a boy. 


Ac. puerds, boys. 


V, puer, boy. 


V. puerl, boys. 


Ab. puero, with, etc., a boy. 


Ab. puerls, with, etc., boys. 



02* — All the nouns in er declined like puer, are the compounds offero 
and gero ; as, Lucifer, the morning star ; armiger, an armor-bearer ; also 
the nouns adulter, an adulterer ; Celtiber, a Celtiberian ; Iber, a Spaniard ; 
Liber, Bacchus ; gener, a son-in-law ; socer, a father-in-law ; vesper, the 
evening ; presbyter, elder ; and sometimes Mulciber, a name of Vulcan : 
also the plural liberl, children. The only words in ir are vir, man, and its 
compounds, duumviri, etc., and the national name Trevir. There is one 
adjective ending in ur, satur, sated, declined like puer. 

Words in er and ir, it is probable, originally ended in erus and irus ; 
and hence, in some words, both forms are still found ; as, socerus and socer. 

68. — All other nouns in er, lose e in the other cases when an ending 

is added ; as, 

Liber, a book, Masc. (libro-). 



Singular. 


Plural 


Thus decline : 


N. liber, 


N. librl, 


Ager, 


afield. 


G. librl, 


G. librornm, 


Aper, 


a wild boar. 


D. libro, 


J), librls, 


Culter, 


a knife. 


Ac. librnm, 


Ac. libros, 


Magister, 


a master. 


V. liber, 


V. librl, 


Auster, 


the south wind. 


Ab. libro. 


Ab. libris. 


Cancer, 


a crab. 




Regnum, a kingdom, Neu 


t. (regno-). 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


iV. regnum, 


N*. regna, 


Antrum, 


a cave. 


G. regnl, 


G. regnorum, 


Astrum, 


a star. 


D. regno, 


D. regnls, 


Donum, 


a gift. 


Ac. regnram, 


Ac. regna, 


Jugum 


a yoke. 


V. regnum, 


V. regna, 


Saxum, • 


a stone. 


Ab. regno. 


Ab. regnis. 


Pomum, 


' an apple. 



64-68] 



GREEK NOUNS. 



21 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 



Arbiter, 


a judge. 


Folium, 


a leaf. 


Socer, a father -in-lax 


Bellum, 


war. 


Gladius, 


a sword. 


Telum, a dart. 


Cadus, 


a cask. 


Lupus, 


a wolf. 


Torus, a couch. 


Ceirus, 


a stag. 


Murus, 


a wall. 


Tectum, the roof. 


Collum, 


the neck. 


Nidus, 


a nest. 


Truncus, the trunk. 


Equus, 


a horse. 


Ovum, 


an egg. 


Velum, a sail. 


Faber, 


an artist. 


Praelium, 


a battle. 


Vadum, a ford. 


Ficus, f., 


a fig-tree. 


Ramus, 


a branch. 


Votum, a vow. 



IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS. 

64:. — When ii occur in the gen. sing., they are often contracted 
into I, but the accent remains on the same syllable, as in the full form : 
ingeni for ingenii. 

65. — Proper names in ius (not adjectives, like Delius, nor nouns 
in which the i is long, as Darius) contract ie of the vocative into I : Vir- 
gilius, voc. sing. Virgili. So a\sofilius, son, makes flit, and genius, guar- 
dian spirit, makes geni. 

66. — The Genitive Plural.— Some nouns, especially those 
which denote value, measure, weight, commonly form the genitive plural in 
unij instead of orum ; as, nummum, sestertium, etc. The same form occurs 
in other words, especially in poetry ; as, deum, Danaum, etc. ; also, divom 
is used for dlvorum. 



67.- 


Deus, a god, is thus declined : 




Singular. 


Plural. 




N. Dens, 


N. Del, or Bil 9 


Contr. DI, 


G. Del, 


G. De5rum, 




I). Deo, 


D. Dels, or Diis, 


" Dis, 


Ac. Deum, 


Ac. Deos, 




V. Dens, 


V. Del, orDil, 


" Di, 


Ab. De5. 


Ab. Dels, or Diis. 


" Dis. 



But the plural forms del and dels are rare. 



GREEK NOUNS. 

6$, — Qreek Nouns in os and on, are often changed into us and 
urn ; as, Alpheos, Alpheus ; llion, Ilium : and those in ros, into er ; as, 
Alexandros, Alexander. When thus changed, they are declined like Latin 
nouns of the same terminations. Otherwise, 



22 GENDER OF SECOND DECLENSION. [69-72 

Greek Nouns are thus declined : 
Androgeos, Masc. ; Delos, Fern. — Barbiton, a lyre, Neut. 



Singular. 

iV". Androgeos, Deles, 

G. Androgeo, or I, Dell, 

D. Androgeo, Delo, 
Ac. Androgeo, on, or ona 9 Delon, 

V. Androgeos, Dele, 

Ab. Androgeo. Delo. 



Singular. 
JVL barbiton, 
G. barbitl, 
D. barbito, 
Ac. barbiton, 
V. barbiton, 
Ab. barbito. 



69. — Greek Nouns in eus are declined partly by the third de- 
clension, and retain some Greek forms. Thus, Orpheus is declined, 
N. Orpheus. 



G. Orpheos, ex, or ei, 
D. Orphei, ei, or eo. 
Ac. Orphea, -eiim. 
V. Orpheu. 
Ab. Orpheo. 



We find also the genitives 
Aehillei, Ulixei, though Achil- 
les, Mixes are otherwise of the 
third declension. 



70. — The proper name Panthus has in Virgil the vocative Panthu. 

In a very few words the nom. plur. has oe (Greek, ot) : canephoroe from 
canlphoros, basket-bearers. 

The Greek gen. plur. in on (uv) is found in a few words, chiefly the 
titles of books : Georgicon, of the Georgics, and in a few proper names : 
Colonia Theraeon, the colony of the Theraeans. 

The gen. sing, in u (Greek ov) occurs in a few names : Menandru, of 
Menander. 

The word pelagus, sea, has the nom. and ace. plur. pelage. 

GENDER OF NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
71. — Masculines have the nominative ending in 

us, (os), er, ir. 
Neuters " " um (on). 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

72.— 1. Of nouns ending in us, the names of plants, countries, towns, 
islands, and precious stones, with few exceptions, are feminine (34). 

Obs. In many cases, where the name of a tree ends in us, fern., there is 
a form in urn denoting the fruit of the tree ; as, cerasus, cerasum, cherry ; 
malus, malum, apple; morus, morum, mulberry; pints, pirum, pear; 
primus, prunum, plum ; pdmus, pomurn, fruit (in general). But flcus 
means both a fig-tree and a fig. 



73, 74] THE THIRD DECLENSION. 23 

2. The following five words are feminine : viz., alvus, the belly ; carba- 
sits, sail ; colus, the distaff; humus, the ground ; and v annus, a winnow- 
ing fan. 

3. Virus, juice, poison, and pelagus, the sea, are neuter, and have the 
accusative and vocative like the nominative. Vulgus, the common people, 
is neuter, and very rarely masculine. Pampinus, a vine branch, is rarely 
feminine, commonly masculine. 

4. Many Greek nouns in us, are feminine, especially compounds of 666c ; 
as, meihodus, periodus, etc. So also, biblus, papyrus, diphthongus, para- 
graphus, diametros, perimetros. 

EXERCISES ON THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

List of words in the following exercises: 



Puer, a boy. 


Regnum, 


a kingdom. • 


Solum, 


the soil. 


Dominus, a lord. 


Yentus, 


the mind. 


Oculus, 


the eye. 


Liber, a book. 


Caelum, 


heaven. 


Filius, 


a son. 



Tell the case and number of the following words, and translate them ac- 
cordingly : — Pueri, dominorum, domino, puero, puerum, pueros, libri, libris, 
librum, libro, dominis, domine, regnum, regna, regnorum — ventus, vento, 
ventum — oculus, oculorum — f Ilil, fill, filiis, filios. 

Translate the following words into Latin ; — To a boy, from a boy, 
boy, boys, of boys ; books, of books, for books, in books, with a book ; 
a lord, from a lord, to a lord, of lords, the lords ; of a kingdom, the king- 
dom, to the kingdoms ; to the winds of heaven, lords of the soil, etc., ad 
libitum. 

THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

¥3, — Nouns of the third declension are very numerous ; 
they are of all genders, and generally increase one syllable 
in the oblique cases. Its final letters, in the nominative, 
are thirteen, «, £, i, o, y, c, <#, ?, n, r, s, £, x. Of these, a, i 9 
y, are peculiar to Greek nouns, and d to a few foreign names. 

Obs. A noun is said to increase, when it has more syllables in the geni- 
tive singular than it has in the nominative. 

74. — The stem of most words of this declension ends 
in a consonant ; and for these the ending of the genitive 
singular is is. 

Many words, however, have stems ending in i, and 



24 



CASE-ENDIKGS. [75-80 



for these the genitive ending is s, which with the i of the 
stem gives is; and this being the same as the ending for 
consona?2t-stems, is is generally stated as the genitive end- 
ing for all nouns of this declension. 



CASE-EOTUNGS. 



Consonant-stems. 



X-stems. Note: these endings include 
the stem vowel. 

Sing. Plur. 

m. or f. n. m. or f. n. 

is(es) e es ia 

is is ium ium 

1 i ibus ibus 

em(im) e gs (Is) ia 

is e es ia 



Sing. Plur. 

m. or f. n. m. or f. n. 
N. s(?) - es a 

G. is is um urn 

D» J I ibus ibus 

Ac. em es a 

V. s(?) es a 

Ab - e e ibus ^us e (I) I (e) ibus ibus 

For the arrangement of these case-endings in Madvig's order, see 50. 

In the table of case-endings given above (74), the (?) 
implies that some nouns do not take the ending s. The 
dash (-) implies that no case-ending is there added. 

75.— In order to determine how a noun of this declension is to be in- 
flected, it is therefore necessary to know the stem and the gender. 

Words of this declension are called Parisyllaba or Imparisyllaba. 

V6.—I*arisyllaba are those which have the same number of syl- 
lables in the genitive as in the nominative singular. These have stems 
ending in i-, e. g. ndvis, a ship, gen. navis, stem navi-. 

77.—Imparisyllaba are those which have more syllables in the 
genitive than in the nominative singular. These have stems ending in 
consonants, e. g. hiems, winter, gen. hiemis, stem, Mem-. 

78. — But there are a few neuter nouns whose stems end in all- ari- 
which have for the most part lost the ending e of the nominative singula^ 
and these appear to be imparisyllaba, but are not really so. Indeed in 
some of them the full form is found, as well as the mutilated one, e. g. 
cochlear and cochleare, a spoon, from the stem cochleari-. Of such words 
the stems will be printed thus : animal(i-). 

79.— Newly all parisj/llaba (i-stems) make their nominative sin- 
gular in is or es (m. or f.), or e (n.) 



81-87] IMPARISYLLABA. 25 

80. — But there are a few nouns and several adjectives with stems 
ending in ri, which take no ending in the nominative singular, but drop the 
final £-, and insert e before r, for the sake of clear articulation, if there be 
no vowel before r in the stem ; e. g. linlri-, wherry, makes the nom. sing. 
linter, in which the e is inserted for the sake of articulation. 

81. — In the case of all imparisyllaba (consonant-stems), 
the stem generally ends in the consonant which precedes is in the genitive 
case. Thus : lapis, a stone, gen. sing, lapid-is, stem, lapid-. 

82* — But in some words in which the consonant before is is r, the r is 
the representative of an original s, which, in accordance with a common 
principle in Latin, is changed into r between two vowels (95). Thus : mos, 
custom, genit. moris, stem mos-, (not mor-). 

83. — There are many words, however, which, though they appear by 
the above rule to have stems ending in consonants, yet form some of their 
cases, particularly in the plural, as if from stems ending in i-. It is prob- 
able that the original stem of such words ended in i throughout. Such words 
will be printed thus : stirp(i-). See 119. 

84:. — In some words with consonant stems, in which the consonant of 
the genitive is preceded by a short i, this is not the original vowel of the 
stem, but has been changed from a short o, a short e, or a short u, which 
appears in the nominative. This is on the principle that in passing over a 
short syllable in the middle of a word, the voice naturally changes the 
heavier vowel o or e to the lighter sound i (see 4). Thus from homo, man, 
and miles, soldier, the genitives are homin-is, milit-is, but the stems are 
homon-, milet- ; the lighter vowel i having replaced the heavier vowels o 
and e ; since it is evidently easier to say hominis, militis, than to pronounce 
homonis, mlletis, with the middle vowels distinctly articulated. (See 89, 96.) 

83. — On the contrary, in some words, particularly neuter nouns, the 
genitive gives the true stem-vowel ; but this has passed in the nominative 
into the duller vowel u. Thus : the genitive robor-is gives the true stem 
robor-, but the nominative sing, is robur. So the genitive oper-is gives 
the true stem-vowel e, though the nominative sing, is opus. 

EXAMPLES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
A.-IMPARISYLLABA. 

86. — I. Consonant -stems with the nominative end- 
ing s ; masculine or feminine. 

These stems end in a m/ate 9 c 9 g ; t, d ; p, b; or the 
liquid m 9 or the spirant v. 

87. — When s is added to a palatal (c, g,) x is written 
for cs or ^s. 



26 



EXAMPLES. 



[88 



88.— When s is added to a lingual (t, d,) the lingual 
is left out before s. 



dux, leader. 


lex, law. 


nepos, grandson. 


lapis, stone. 


(due-) c. 


(teg-)/ 


(nepot-) m. 


(lapid-) m. 




Singular. 




N. dux (=ducs, 8>7)lex (=leg», 81) 


nepos(=nep5ts) 


lapis (lapids, 88) 


G. ducis 


legis 


nepotis 


lapidis 


D. duel 


iegl 


nepotl 


lapidx 


Ac. dueem 


legem 


nepotem 


lapidem 


V. dux (=ducs) 


lex (=legs) 


nepos (mnepots) 


lapis (=lapids) 


Ab. duce 


lege 


nepOte 


lapide 




Plural. 




N. duces 


leges 


nepotes 


lapides 


G. ducum 


legum 


nepotiim 


lapidum 


D. ducil>us 


legibus 


nepotlhus 


lapidibus 


Ac. duces 


leges 


nep5tes 


lapides 


V. duces 


leges 


nepotes 


lapides 


Ab. duclbus 


legibus 


nepotibus 


lapidibus 


[daps]* feast. 


urbs, city. 


hiems, winter. 


nix, snow. 


(dap-) f. 


urb(i-) f. (83) 


(hiem-)/. 


niv(i-)/.(83) 




Singular. 




N. [daps]* 


urbs 


hiems 


nix (=nivs)f 


G. dapis 


urbis 


hiemis 


nivis 


D. dapl 


urbl 


hieml 


nivi 


Ac. dapem 


urbem 


hiemem 


nivem 


V. [daps]* 


urbs 


hiems 


nix (=nivs) 


Ab. dape 


urbe 


hieme 


nive 




Plural. 




N. dapes 


urbes 


hiemes 


nives 


G. dapum 


urbiiim (83) 


hiemum 


nivium (83) 


D. dapil>iis 


urbibus 


hiernibiis 


nivibus 


Ac. dapes 


urbes (Is) 


hiemes 


nives (is) 


V. dapes 


urbes 


hiemes 


nives 


Ab. daplbiis 


urblbus 


hiemibus 


nivilms 



* The nom. sing, is only found quoted by the grammarians from the oldest writers. 

t The v appears to have passed into the palatal g. Compare the verb ningo. The 
same connection between v and a palatal occurs in fluo (Jluxi), struo (strwxi,) vwo 
(vixl). Compare for the omission of v mfluo, struo, pluo and plv^ia^ diluvium and 
luo, exuviae and exuo. 



sy-y^j 


EXAMPLES. 


2 


miles, soldier. 
(milet-) m. 


obses, hostage. 
(obsed-) c. 

Singular. 


seges, crop. 
(seget-) /. 


N. miles (— milets, 88) 
G. mllitis(84) 
D. mllitx 
Ac. militem 


obses (= obseds, 88) 
obsidis (84) 
obsidx 

obsidem 


seges (= segets, 88) 
segetis (89) 
segetx 
segetem 


Y. miles (= mllets) 
Ab. mllite 


obses (= obseds) 
obside 

Plural. 


seges (= segets) 
segete 


N. mflites 


obsides 


segete s 


G. mHitum. 


obsidixm 


segetixm 


D. mllitilms 


obsidxfons 


segetilms 


Ac. mllites 


obsides 


segetes 


V. milites 


obsides 


segete s 


Ab. nulitxbus 


obsidilras 


segetilms 



89. — In miles and obses, observe the change of the stem- vowel e to the 
lighter vowel i in the oblique cases. All words of more than one syllable, 
whose stems end in a single mute preceded by a short e, experience this 
change, except abies (abiet-), fir, aries (ariet-), ram, paries (pariet-), wail, 
seges (seget-), crop, leges (teget-), mat, interpres (interpret-), interpreter, 
fenisex (fenisec-), mower, aquilex (aquileg-), water inspector, and the com- 
pounds ofped-, foot, and the adjectives hebes (hebet-), dull, and teres (teret-), 
rounded. Observe, also, the lengthening of the stem-vowel in the nomina- 
tives abies, aries, paries. 

90. — II. Consonant stems, which are without 
the nominative ending s ; masculine or feminine. These end 
in one of the liquids, £, n, or r, or in the spirant s. 

91. — Stems ending in 1 remain unchanged in the 
nominative singular. 

92. — Stems ending in n remain unchanged in the nom- 
inative singular, unless the n is preceded by o, in which 
case n is dropped and 6 is sometimes shortened : sermon-, 
nom. s. sermo. 

93. — Stems ending in r remain unchanged in the nom- 
inative singular, except that 



28 



EXAMPLES. 



[94, 95 



(1) Stems ending in or, shorten the o : amor-, nom. sing. 
amor. 

(2) Stems ending in tr- insert e before r, for the sake 
of articulation : patr-, nom. sing, pater. 

94. — Stems ending in s remain unchanged in the nom- 
inative, but in the oblique cases s is changed to r. (82.) 





consul, consul 


sermo, speech. 


amor, love. 


fLo&,Jlower. 




(consul-) m. 


(sermon-) m. 


(amor-) m. 


(flos-) m. 






Singular. 




N. 


consul (91) 


sermo (92) 


amor (93) 


flos (94) 


G. 


consults 


sermonis 


amoris 


floris (82) 


D. 


consul! 


sermon! 


amor! 


flor! 


Ac. 


consulem 


sermonein 


amorem 


florem 


V. 


consul 


sermo 


amor 


flOS 


Ab 


consule 


sermone 


amore 
Plural. 


flore 


N. 


consults 


sermones 


amores 


flores 


G. 


consilium 


sermoniim 


amoriim 


floram 


D. 


consulibus 


sermonlbais 


amoribus 


floribus 


Ac. 


consults 


sermones 


amOres 


floras 


V. 


consules 


serm6n€s 


amores 


floras 


Ab 


consulibus 


sermonibus 


amOribus 


floribus 






95. — Observe the change of s to r in the oblique cases of flos. All 
words whose stems end in s experience this change, except vus (vas-), a 
vessel, which retains s throughout. 





pater, father. 


virgo, maiden. 


anser, goose. 


pecten, comb. 




(patr-) m. 


(virgon-)/. 


(anser-) m. 
Singular. 


(pecten-) m. 


N. 


pater (93) 


virgo (92) 


anser (93) 


pecten (92) 


G. 


patris 


virginis (84) 


anseris 


peetinis (84) 


D. 


patrl 


virgin! 


anser! 


pectin! 


Ac, 


patrem 


virginem 


anserem 


pectinem 


V. 


pater 


virgo 


anser 


pecten 


Ab 


. patre 


virgine 


ansere 
Plural. 


pectine 


N. 


patres 


virgines 


anser© s 


pectines 


G. 


patrum 


virginum 


anserum 


pectinum 


D. 


patribus 


virginibus 


anseribus 


pectinibus 


Ac. 


patres 


virgines 


ansere s 


pectines 


V. 


patrSs 


virgines 


ansere s 


pectines 


Ab 


. patribus 


virginibus 


anseribus 


pectinibus 



96, 97] 



EXAMPLES. 



29 



Observe in pater the insertion of e before r, in the nom. sing. (93), and 
in virgo, pecten, observe the lightening of the stem-vowels o and e to i 
in the oblique cases (84). 

06» — All words in o increasing shovt (i. e., with stems ending in on-, 
— not on-), change o to i in the oblique cases, as virgo does ; except a 
few national names, as Macedo {Macedon-), a Macedonian, which retain the 
o through all the cases. 

97 • — The noun caro (caron-), flesh, leaves out the vowel, by syncope 
(15), and makes the genitive carnis, for caronis. 

HI. Neuter nouns with consonant-stems, with- 
out any nominative-ending : 



fulgur, lightning. 


carmen, song. 


'onus, burden. 


tergus, hide. 


(fulgur-) n. 


(carmen-) n. 


(ones-) n. 
Singular. 


(tergos-) n. 


N. fulgur 


carmen 


onus (85) 


tergus (85) 


G. fulguris 


carminis (89) 


oneris 


tergoris (95) 


D. fulgur! 


carminl 


onerl 


tergorl 


Ac. fulgur 


carmen 


onus 


tergus 


V. fulgur 


carmen 


onus 


tergus 


Ab. fulgure 


carmine 


onere 
Plural. 


tergore 


N. fulgura 


carmina 


onera 


tergora 


G. fulgurcuii 


carminitm 


onerum 


tergorima 


D. fulgurifoas 


carminlbus 


oneriifoias 


tergorlfoas 


Ac. fulgura 


carmina 


onera 


tergora 


V. fulgura 


carmina 


onera 


tergora 


Ab. fulgurlfoiis 


carminlfoiis 


oneribas 


tergorilms 



Observe in carmen, the lightening of the stem-vowel e to i, when a 
syllable is added (89). Also, in onus, tergus, observe the change of the 
stem-vowels e, o, to u, in the nom. sing. (85), and the change of s into r 
when between two vowels (95). 



caput, head. 




marmor, marble. 


femur, thigh. 


(caput-) n. 




(marmor-) n. 

Singular. 


(femor-) n. 


N. caput 




marmor 


femur (85) 


G. capitis 


(84) 


marmoris 


fern oris 


D. capitl 




marmorl 


femorl 


Ac. caput 




marmor 


femur 


V. caput 




marmor 


femur 


Ab. capite 




marmore 


femore 



30 



PAKISYLLABA. 



[98, 99 



N. capita 
G. capitum 
D. capitlbus 
Ac. capita 
V. capita 
Ab. capitlfous 



Plural, 
marniora 
marmoriiMi 
marmorlfons 
marmora 
marmora 
marmorlfons 



femora 

femoram 

femorlbiis 

femora 

femora 

femorlfons 



In caput observe the change of u into i, when a syllable is added (84). 

98, — In femur observe the change of the stem-vowel o to u in the 
nom. sing. There are only four words in or-, in which this occurs, viz. : 
femur (femor-), thigh ; ebur (ebor-\ ivory ; jecur (jecor-)> liver ; robur 
(robor-), oak. 

B.-PAMSYIiIiABA. 
I. Stems ending in i- 9 Masculine or Feminine. 

auris, ear. 
(auri-,)/. 

N. auris 
G. auris 
D. aurl 
Ac. aurem 
Y. auris 
Ab. aure 

N. aures 
G. aurlniBi 
D. aurlfons 
Ac. aures (Is) 
V. aures 
Ab. aurifews 

Observe the accusative plural in es or Is ; see 114. 

99. — Observe that the nom. sing, of nubes is like that 
of Decl. V. There are several words which thus appear 
to have a stem ending in §. Such are clades, a defeat ; 
rupes, a rock ; secies, a seat. Fames, hunger, has also 
fame in the abl. sing. (185). 

In lintri-, observe that (like words in -ro-, 60) the i is 
dropped in the nom. sing., and an e inserted before it to 
help the articulation of r (80). 



turris, tower. 


nubes, cloud. 


linter, wherry. 


(turri-,)/. 


(nubi-,)/. 
Singular. 


(lintri-,)/. * 


turris 


nubes 


linter (80) 


turris 


nubis 


lintris 


turri 


nubi 


lintri 


turriisa(em 


)(111) nubem 


lintrem 


turris 


nub^s . 


linter 


turri (e) (111) nube 


lintre 




Plural. 




tores 


nubes 


lintres 


turrium 


nublioa 


lintriiuna 


turrlbus 


nubil>sis 


lintrlfows 


turris (es) 


nubes (Is) 


lintres (Is) 


turres 


nubes 


lintres 


turrlbws 


nubifeus 


lintril>iis 



100-105] REMARKS ON THIRD DECLENSION. 



31 



II. Stems ending in i- 9 Neuter. 



Praeneste, Prceneste. 
(Praenesti-,) n. 

Praeneste 

Praenestis 

Praenesti 

Praeneste 

Praeneste 

Praeneste 



mare, sea. animal, animal. 

(mari-,) n. animal(i-,) n. 

Singular. 

N. mare animal (78) 

G. maris animalis 

D. marl animal! 

Ac. mare animal 

V. mare animal 

Ab. marl animal! 

Plural. 

N. maria animalia 

G. marium animalium. 

D. marlbus animalil>ias 

Ac. maria animalia 

V. maria animalia 

Ab. marilms animallbiis 

100. — Observe the abl. sing, generally in I, but in Praeneste in e. 
Other names of towns, Caere, Reate, Ar elate, etc., and the mountain 
Soracte, have the ablative singular in e, instead of i. So also has mare 
sometimes in the poets, and generally rite, a net. 



ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

101. — The nouns cinis, m. (ciner-), ash, cucumis, m. (cucumer-), 
cucumber, pulvis, m. (pulver-), vdmis, m. (vomer-), ploughshare, and the 
adjective pubes, ( puber-), adult, make the genitive in er£s. But vomis and 
pubes have sometimes the nominative vomer, piiber, and cucumis has in 
Pliny the genitive cucumis and the ablative cucuml. 

102. — The nouns sanguis, m. (sanguin-), blood, andpollis, c. (pollen-), 
fine meal, have the genitive in inis. But pollis has sometimes the nomina- 
tive neuter pollen. 

103. — The two nouns sits, c. (sw-), pig, and grus, c. (gru-), crane, 
take the endings of the consonant declension (imparisyllaba). They 
are properly uncontracted nouns of the fourth declension. (See 141.) 

104:. — The following words form their nominative singular from a 
different Stem from that which gives the other cases : Jupiter, Jupiter, 
gen. Jovis (Jov-), senex, old man, gen. senis (sen-), supellex, f. furniture, 
gen. supellectilis (supellectil-), iter, n. journey, gen. itineris (itiner-). 

105. — The neuter femur, thigh, has sometimes the stem femen-, gen. 
feminis, in the other cases; so sl\so jecur, n. liver, has the genitives jecoris, 
jecinoris, or jocinoris. 



32 ACC. AND ABL. SINGULAR. [106-111 

106.— The stems of mel n. honey, fel, n. gall, far, n. com, os, n. 
bone, cor, n. heart, lac, n. milk, as, m. as (a pound), bes, m. two-thirds, 
semis, m. half, end in two consonants, and make their genitives mellis, 
fellis, f arris, ossis, cordis, lactis, assis, bessis, semissis. 

107. — &ryps, griffin, makes gryphis; auceps, fowler, makes aucupis ; 
vibex, weal, makes vibicis ; tigris, tiger, makes tigris or tigridis ; bos, ox, 
cow, makes bovis ; and in the plural gen. dat. abl. bourn, bobus or bubus. (123.) 

108. — The river Anio makes the gen. Anienis and Nerio, a name of 
the wife of Mars, Nerienis. 

ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

1 09. — In the table of case-endings in *74, the endings im and I are 
given as occurring sometimes for em and e, as the accusative and ablative 
singular of stems ending in i. As no general rule can be given for these 
words, the principal ones must be here enumerated. For the sake of con- 
venience they are here placed together, and are marked with the following 
signs : 

§ placed before a word means " im always 

f placed before a word means " im generally ^ in the accusative." 

J placed before a word means " im rarely 

§ placed after a word means " I always 

f placed after a word means " x generally y in the ablative," 

\ placed after a word means " I rarely 

If no sign is placed before a word, the accusative is regular, in em. 
If no sign is placed after a word, the ablative is regular, in e. 
110. — I. Names of rivers with Osteins : § Tiberis §, the Tiber § Athe- 
sis §, the Adige, and some foreign names of places : § Hispalis §, Seville. 

111. — II. § amussis §, a rule. % navis f, ship. 

§ buris §, plough-tail. J sementis J, sowing. 

§ cucumis 1 §, cucumber. % strigilis f , scraper. 
§ ravis §, hoarseness. 

§ sitis §, thirst. amnis \, river. 

§ tussis %, cough. anguis \, snake. 

§ vis §, force. avis 2 %, bird. 

bilis \, bile. 

f febris f, fever. clvis f, citizen, 

f pelvis f, basin. collis \, hill, 

f puppis f, stern. corbis \, basket. 

1 Cucumis is generally declined from a stem cucumer-. See 101. 
9 Avis, in the sense of ' omen, 1 always has I in the ablative. 



112-119] GENITIVE PLURAL. 33 

f restis }, rope. /mis J, end. 

f securis f , axe. ignis f, fire, 

f turris f, tower. orbis f, globe. 

postis J, post. 

J ctew f , key. ratis f , boat. 

% classis $, fleet. veetfw J, lever. 

J warns, harvest. unguis J, nail. 

-*-*£•— HI. Neuters in e, al, ar, from stems in i ? al{i-), ar{i-): vecti- 
gal %, {vectlgal{i-)), tribute. But mare f, sea, and rete %, net. 

113.— IV. Adjectives in er, or is (stem in i-), used as nouns, partic- 
ularly the names of months: October %, October, familiaris §, friend, 
volucris §, bird, aedllis %, an aedile. 

But proper names, such as Martialis, Martial, Juvenalis, Juvenal, have e 
always. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 

lid. — The accusative plural, masc. or fern., from stems ending in i, 
was generally formed by the best writers in Is (eis), but in later authors, 
whom most modern editions have followed, es became the usual form. Thus, 
ems, citizen {clvi-), makes clvls or elves; urbs, city {urb{i-)), makes urbis or 
urbes. 

GENITIVE PLURAL. 

115. — The genitive plural of parisyllaba (i-stems) regularly ends 
in ium ; but strues {strut-), heap, vates {vati-), seer, cants (cani-), dog, 
juvenis {juveni-), a youth, always have urn. Volucris {volucri-), bird, apis 
(apt-), bee, sedes {sedi-), seat, rnensis {mensi-), month, often have um. 

116. — Of iinparisyllaba {consonant-stems) which properly have 
wm, the following take ium : 

(1.) Words of more than one syllable ending in the nom. in ns or rs 
(stems in nt{i-)), or rt{i-)), as cliens {client{i-)), a client, clientium ; cohors 
{cohort(i-)), a cohort, cohortium. But of these many have um in poetry, and 
parens {parent{i-)), has um in prose also. 

117. — (2.) Many nouns in as, is (stems dt{i-)), tt{i,-) particularly 
national names, as Quiris {Quirlt{i-)\ Quiritium, Arplnds {Arplnat{i-)), 
Arpinatium. So also in Optimates, nobles, and Penates, household gods; 
and occasionally in other words ; as clvitas, state, makes clvitatium often in 
Livy. 

118. — (3.) Caro, flesh (st. caron-), has carnium. (See 97.) 

119. — (4.) Monosyllables ending in s or x, if the stem-syllable be long 
either by nature or by position : thus frons {frond(i-)), leaf, frondium, arz 



34 



EXAMPLES. 



[120-122 



(arc(i-)), citadel, arcium, lis (llt(i-)), law-suit, litium. Also in nix, snow, 
nivium ; mas, male, marium ; strix, owl, strigium, though in these the vowel 
of the stem is short. 

120. — But these, though the stem-syllable is long, take urn; vox (voc-) y 
voice, vocum ; rex (reg-), king; lex (leg-), law; fur (fur-), thief; laus 
(laud-), praise ; mos (mos-), custom ; fids (flos-), flower ; and the three 
Greek words, gryps (gryph-), griffin ; lynx (lync-), lynx ; sphinx (sphing-), 
sphinx. 

121. — Many monosyllables do not appear to have been used in the 
genitive plural. Such are : cor (cord-), heart, fax (fac-), torch ; fel (fell-), 
gall ; glos (glos-), sister-in-law ; lac (lad-), milk (no plural) ; lux (luc-), light ; 
mel (mell-), honey ; nex (nee-), death ; os (os-), mouth ; pax (pac-}, peace ; 
sol (sol-), sun, ver (ver-) y spring. 

122. — Some plural names of festivals, as Floralia (Florali-), have 
sometimes the genitive plural in -aliorum, or as if they were of the second 
declension. 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR DECLENSION. 



Acer, -eris, n., a maple tree (acer-). 
iEtas, -atis, f., age (aetat-). 
Arbor, -oris, f., a tree (arbor-). 
Aries, -etis, m., a ram (ariet-). 
Ars, -tis, f., an art (art(i-)). 
Career, -eris, m., a prison (career-). 
Car do, -inis, m., a hinge (cardon-). 
Carmen, -inis, n., a poem (carmen-). 
Cervix, -Icis, f., the neck (cervic-). 
Codex, -icis, m., a book (codec-). 
Cor, cordis, n., the heart (cord-). 
Dens, -tis, m., a tooth (dent(i-)). 
Dos, dotis, f., a dowry (dot(i-)). 
Frater, -tris, m., a brother (fratr-). 
Fur, furis, c, a thief (fur-). 



Genus, -eris, n., a kind (genes-). 
Hergs, -edis, c, an heir (hered-). 
Homo, -inis, c, a man (homon-). 
Lac, -tis, n., milk (lact-). 
Laus, -dis, f., praise (laud-j. 
Lex, legis," f., a law (leg-). 
Monile, -is, n., a necklace (monili-). 
Mons, -tis, m., a mountain (mont(i-)). 
Munus, -eris, n., a gift (munes-). 
Nox, noctis, f., night (noct(i-)). 
Regio, -onis, f., a region (region-). 
Trabs, -abis, f., a beam (trab-). 
Turris, -is, f., a tower (turri-). 
Uter, titris, m., a bottle (utri-). 
Vulnus, -eris, n., a wound (vulnes-). 



EXERCISES ON THE EXAMPLES DECLINED IN 88-99. 
Tell the case and number of tlie following words, and translate them 
accordingly:— Ducis, duel, ducum ; lapide, lapidem ; nepotum, nepotis; 
nivium, nivibus ; miles, mllitl, militum ; obsides, obside ; virginl, virgines,' 
virgine; sermonis, sermonem, sermonum ; oneris, onus, onera; capitis' 
capitibus; animal!, animalium, animalia ; femoris, femur; turri, turris • 
linter, lintris, lintrls ; mare, marl, maribus ; carminis, carminum, carmint ' 



123-126] 



GKEEK NOUNS. 



35 



Translate the following words into Latin : — Of a city, with snow, of the 
consuls, to love, by flowers, of the fathers, to geese, by a burden, of clouds 
to stones, of wherries, by a head, to a father, the ears of the animal, by 
the speech of the consul, the law3 of the city, by the lightning of the clouds, 
to the hides of the animals, ad libitum. 

123b — Some nouns of the third declension are peculiar 
in different cases, as follows : 



Jupiter (Jov-) (104). 


Vis, force, power, Fern. (vis(i- 


Singular. 


Singular. Plural. 


N. Jupiter, 


iV 7 ". vis, AT. vires, 


G. Jovis, 


G. [vis], G. virium. 


D. Jovi, 


D. — , D. viribus, 


Ac. Jovem, 


Ac. vim, Ac. vires, 


V. Jupiter, 


V. vis, V. vires, 


Ab. Jove. 


Ab. vT. Ab. viribus. 


Bos, an ox, ( 


3r cow, Masc. or Fern. (bov-). 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. b5s, 


N. boves, 


G. bovis, 


G. bourn, 


D. bovi, 


D. bobus, or bubus,* 


Ac. bovem, 


Ac. boves, 


V. bOs, 


V. bovSs, 


Ab. bove. 


Ab. bobus, or bubus. 



PECULIARITIES IN THE DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS. 

12&. — Nom. sing. — Greek proper names of men in on have gen- 
erally the Latin form in o, as Agamemno, Solo ; but geographical names 
retain on, as Babylon, though of these we find Croto, Fmtsino, Tarraco, etc. 

125. — Gen. sing. — The Greek ending os is sometimes found: 

Pallas (Pallad-), Pallados ; Tethys ( Tethy-), Tethyos ; Orpheus, Orpheos ; 
Pan, Panos. Parisyllaba in es (proper names) have sometimes I for is : 
Ulixes, Ulixl (in poetry, also, Ulixei). 

126. — Proper names in 5, like Dido, generally take ns in the 
genitive, and are unaltered in the other cases : Dido, Dldus, Dido. But these 
are more rarely declined as if with stems ending in on- ; Dido, Didonis, etc. 



* Contracted for bovibus. 



36 



GREEK NOUNS. 



[127-136 



127 • — -Ace, sing, — Many words take a for em; but in prose writ- 
ers, for the most part, only proper names and the words aer (aer-), air, 
aether (aether-), sky. So Hector, Hectora ; paean, paeana ; tyrannis, 
tyrannida. 

128. — The ending im or in is found in a few words : Charybdis, Cha- 
rybdin ; Zeuxis, Zeuxin ; poem, poesim or poesin. 

Proper names in es have sometimes en: Aeschines, Aeschinen. So 
Thales(Thalet-) makes Thaletem, Thalem, and Thalen; Dares (Daret-) 
makes Dareta and Daren. 

129* — Voc. sing. — In the voc. sing, s of the nominative is usually 
dropped : Orpheus, Orpheu ; Pallas (stem Pallant-), Palla; Pericles, Pericle. 
Yet names in es sometimes merely shorten the e: Socrates, Socrate or 
Socrates. 

130. — Abl. sing. — The abl. sing, from proper nouns in is (stem 
id-) is rarely found in l for ide : Daphnis, Daphnide, and Daphnl. 

131.— The nom. voc. ace. plur. neuter are found in e: epos, 
epd ; melos, mele. So also Tempe, the vale of Tempe. Compare pelage from 
pelagus (70). 

132. — The nom. and voc. plur. masc. or fern, are sometimes 
found in es for es : Areas, Arcades. 

133.— -The ace. plur. masc. or fern, is sometimes found is as 
for es : Cyclops, Cyclopas, for Cyclopes ; aspis, aspidas, for aspides. 

13d. — The gen. plur. of a few words is found in on : metamor- 
phoses, the name of a poem, metamorphoseon ; Chalybes, Chalybon. 

135. — The dot. and abl. plur. of words in -ma (stem -mat-) is 
generally made in Is for ibus : ppema (poemat-), poematis. 

In a few proper names, si or sin is found : Troas (Troad-), Troasin. 



136. GREEK NOUNS THROUGH ALL THE CASES. 



Nom. Gen. 

& Lampas, -adis, or -ados, 

PJ.Lamp-ades, -adum, 

& Tro-as, -adis, or -ados, 

P/.Tr5-ades, -adum, 

& Heros, -ois, 

8. Phyll-is, -idis, or -idos, 

& Par-is, -idis, or -idos, 

& Chlam-ys, -ydis, or -ydos, 

& Cap-ys, -yis, or -yos, 

& Hseres-is, -is, -ios, or -eos, 

& Orph-eus, -eos, or -ei, or -ei, 

<S. Dld-o, -us, or -onis, 



Bat. 


Ace. 


Voc. 


AM. 


-adi, 


-adem, or -ada, 


-as, 


-ade. 


-adibus, 


-ades, or -adas, 


-ades, 


-adibus. 


-adi, 


-adem, or -ada, 


-as, 


-ade. 


( -adibus, 


) 




( -adibus. 


•I -asi, or . 


V-ades, or adas, 


-ades, 


•< -asi, or 


( -asin, 


) 




{ -asin. 


-6i 


-oem, or oa, 


-OS, 


-oe. 


-idi, 


-idem, or ida, 


-i, or-is, 


-ide. 


-idi, 


-idem, -ira, or -in, 


-i, 


-ide. 


-y<h, 


-ydem, or -ida, 


-ys, 


-yde. 


-y*i 


-ym, or -yn, 


-I' 


~7 e - 


-i, 


-im, or -in, 


-i. 


-e'i, or -ei, 


-ea, 


-eu, 


-eo. 


-6, or -oni, 


-o, or -onem, 


-o, 


-o, or-one 



For the rules of gender of words of the third declension, see 151— 175. 



137] 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



37 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 
137. — The Fourth Declension lias two termi- 
nations of the nominative singular, us and u. 
Those in u are neuter, those in us for the most 
part masculine. 







CASE-ENDINGS. 






MascuUne and Feminine. 




Neuter. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


K 


us, 


US, 


N. 


u, 


ua, 


G. 


US, 


uum, 


G. 


us, 


uum, 


J). 


ui> (u), 


ibus, 


D. 


u(ui), 


ibus, 


Ac. 


um, 


us, 


Ac 


• u, 


ua, 


V. 


us, 


us, 


V. 


u, 


ua, 


Ab. 


% 


ibus. 


Al 


. u, 


ibus. 






Ctrasus, course, 


Masc. 


(cursu-). 






Singular. 


Plural. 




Thus decline : 


N. 


cursiis, 


N. cursiis, 




Cantus, 


a song. 


G. 


cursHLS, 


G. cursnum. 


► 


Casus, 


a fall. 


D. 


cursui, 


D. cursitons, 




Currus, 


a chariot. 


Ac. 


cursum, 


Ac. cursfts, 




Fluctus, 


a wave. 


V. 


cursus, 


V. cursu.s, 




Gradus, 


a step. 


Ab. 


cursli.. 


Ab. cursil>us. 




Senatus, 


the senate. 






Cornu, a horn, 


Neut. ( 


cornu-). 






Singular. 


Plural. 




Thus decline 


i • 


N. 


corna, 


N. cornna, 








G. 


corn&s, 


G. cornuum 


9 






D. 


cornfiL, 


D. eornlbus, 


> 


Genu, 


the knee. 


Ac. 


cornfi. 9 


Ac. cornaa, 




Pecii, 


cattle. 


V. 


cornli., 


V. comma, 




Veru, 


a spit. 


Ab. 


corn«i. 


Ab. cornlbus. 









Note. — The only neuters in this declension are cornu, gelu, genu, veru, 
and pecu, which has the dative pecul : tonitrus, us, m., and tonitruum, i, n., 
thunder, are in common use ; tonitric is hardly ever found in classic writers, 
and never in the nominative or accusative singular. 



Flatus, a blast. 
Ictus, a stroke. 
Manus, f., the hand. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 

Motus, a motion. Ritus, a ceremony. 

Ntitus, a nod. Sinus, a bay. 



Passus, apace. 



Situs, a situation. 



38 FOURTH DECLENSION. [138-144 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

138. — The following nouns are feminine, viz. : 
Acus, a needle. Ficus, a fig. Porticus, a gallery. 

Amis, an old woman. Idtis, pi., the Ides. Quinquatrus, ^\.a festival. 

Colus, distaff. Manus, the hand. Specus,* a den. 

Domus, a house. Penus, store. Tribus, a tribe. 

Penus has also the stem peno-, masc. and neuter, and penos-, neut 

PECULIARITIES IN DECLENSION. 

139. — The Genitive and Dative Singular: — In some 
writers, the genitive singular is occasionally found in uis ; as, ejus anuis 
causa, for anus. Ter., and sometimes also in I ; as, senail and tumulti. 
Sall. In others, the dative is sometimes found in u, as, resistere impetu, 
for impetui ; to resist an attack. 

140. — The Dative and Ablative Plural:— -These nouns 
in cus (stem, cu-), have ubus instead of ibus in the dative and abl. plur., 
acus, needle, arcus, bow, lacus, lake, (quercus, oak ?) specus, den ; and also 
artus, joint, partus, birth, tribus, tribe, veru, spit. Sometimes, also, portus, 
harbor, sinus, bay, genu, knee. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

14:1. — 1. Nouns of this declension seem to have belonged anciently to 
the third, and were declined like grus, gruis ; thus, cursus=cursuis, gen. 
sing., and cursues, nom. and ace. plur. See 103. 

142. — 2. Several names of trees of this declension are, in whole or in 
part, of the second also ; such as Ficus, laurus, cupressus, myrtus. The 
cases ending in us and u are preferred to those of the second declension. 
Capricornus, m., and the compounds of manus, as unimanus, centimanus, 
etc., are always of the second. 

143. — Jesus, the name of the Saviour, has um in the accusative, and 
u in all the other oblique cases. This word does not properly belong to 
this declension, but is after the Greek: ''Itjgovq, ov, ov, ovv, ov. 

144. S. Domus, a house, Fern., is thus declined (domo- or domu-). 



Singular. 
N. domus, 
G. domlis, 
D. domaii, or o 9 
Ac. domnma, 
V. domus, 



Plural 
JSF. dom&s, 
G. domorraii, or -ntimi 

D. domains, 
Ac. domlis, or o§ 9 
V. domiis, 



Ab. domo. j Ab. domii*ii§< 



* Sometimes masculine and neuter. 



145, 146] 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



39 



There is, besides, the form domi, which is a locative (934), and means 
"at home." Colus, /., a distaff, is declined like domus, having dat. cold, 
abl. cold or colic, nom. plur. colas, gen. coluum, ac. colds, dat. abl. colibus. 

ld&. — Several nouns derived from verbs are of this declension, but 
are found only in the dative or ablative singular, such as despicatul, osten- 
tui, derisui ; jussu, rogdtu, moniiu, manddtu, natu. 

EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH DECLENSION. 

1. Tell the gender \ number, and case of the following words, from the 
paradigm and additional examples, p. 37, and translate : 

Cursus, cursus, cursuum, flatibus, flatu, manuum, manibus, nutu, pas- 
suum, passibus, passus, cornua, tonitribus, verubus, casti, currum, currui, 
fluctu, fluctibus, cornibus, etc. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin, and tell the gender, number, 
and case, in which the words are put ; viz. : 

Of a course, with the hand, for the hand, of a horn, to a horn, with 
a horn, from horns, horns, the horns, of the chariot, for a chariot, of 
chariots, from the waves, for the waves, from his hands, with a nod, etc. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 

146. — The Fifth Declension has but one ter- 
mination of the nominative singular, namely, es ; 
as, res, a thing ; dies, a day. 

All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies, a day, which 
is masculine or feminine in the singular, and always masculine in the plural ; 
and merldies, the mid-day, which is masculine in the singular, and wants 
the plural. 

Note.— Dies is fern, in the sing, when it means " a space of time," and 
often when it means " an appointed day." 



Singular. 
i\T. dies, 
a. diel, 
I), diel, 
Ac. diem, 
V. dies, 
Ab. die. 



1. Dies, a dag (die-). 



PluraL 
N. dies, 
G. dierum, 

D. dielms, 
Ac. dies, 
V. dies, 
Ab. dielms. 



TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


es, 


es, 


ei, e, 


erum, 


61, e, 


Sbus, 


em, 


es, 


6s, 


es, 


e, 


ebus. 



40 EXERCISES AND EXAMPLES. [147-150 

147 • — Dies and res are the only nouns of the fifth declension which 
have the plural complete in the best writers. Species has the gen. dat. and 
ab. plur. in later authors ; acies, effigies, fades, series, and spes, in the plural, 
have only the nominative, accusative, and vocative ; the other nouns of thi3 
declension have no plural. 

2. Facies, the face, Fern, (facie-). 



SiDgular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline: 


N. facies, 


-AT. facies, 




G. faciei, 


G. 


Acies, an army (acie-). 


D. faciei, 


D. 


Effigies, an image (effigie-), 


Ac. faciem, 


Ac. facies, 


Series, a series (serie-). 


V. facies, 


V. facies, 


Spes, hope (spe-). 


Ab. facie. 


Ab. ■ 





1&8.— The e of the stem of this declension is always long, except in 
the aoc. sing. ; and in the gen. and dat. sing, of res, fides, spes, in which it is 
generally short, being preceded by a consonant. 

149.— The poets sometimes make the genitive, and more rarely the 
dative singular, in e j as, fide for fidel, Ov. : sometimes in I j as, pernicil 
for perniciel, Nep. ; and plebl for plebei, Liv. 

150.— Many words of the first declension with stems ending in ia- as 
barbaria, duritia, luxuria, have collateral forms in the fifth declension, 
especially in the nom., ace, and abl. singular, barbaries, duritiem, luxurie. ' 

EXERCISES ON THE FIFTH DECLENSION. 

1. Tellthe gender, number, and case of the following nouns, and translate 
^m;-Diei,spei, aciem, acie, faciei, facies, diebus, dierum, dies, faciem 
effigiem, series, rerum, diebus, diem, etc., ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, and tell the gender 
etc.:—The image, of the face, the things, of the army, the hope of the 
army, a series, of days, to a day, from the days, with the army, to an 
image, etc. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES ON ALL THE DECLENSIONS. 

Tell the gender, declension, case, and number of tlie following nouns, in 
the order here mentioned, and give the translation ; thus, Penna, a noun, femi, 
nine, of the first declension, in the ablative singular, "with a pen" : 

Via, pueri, genero, ventls, puerorum, sermo, sedile, sedili, sedilium 
sedlhbus, cursuum, cursus, sella,, tubam, regno, templi, dies, rerum, capita 
capitum, itineribus, partis, parentibus, rupe, urbis, vulpem, vulpibus, parente, 
seailia, die, colorem, mllitis, militibus, sermones, honOre, manus, mantis 



151-154] GENDER OF THIRD DECLENSION. 



41 



manibus, faciem, ala, tubam, mensarum, bellum, dominorum, templum, 
puerorum, bella, bellO, etc.* 

Translate the following into Latin, and state the gender, declension, case, 
and number, always following the same order ; thus, " Of 603/5," puerorum, 
a noun, masculine, of the second declension, in the genitive plural : 

From the way, to a speech, with a part, of a seat, of seats, to the wind, 
a kingdom, to a boy, of boys, with lords, foxes, of tables, to parents, with 
seats, of soldiers, from the head, heads, to a part, with a trumpet, in a time 
of war, the time, of color, in a journey, to a seat, of a rock, to sons-in-law, 
with fruit, of the face, with a seat, to tables, of rocks, etc. 



GENDER OF NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

131. — The rules for gender in this declension admit so 
many exceptions that it is thought best to state the chief 
exceptions in memorial lines borrowed from Dr. Kennedy's 
Latin Grammar, which can easily be learned by heart. 
Beneath each rule the words quoted are translated and 
their stems given. 

152. — First Principal Mule. 



Masculis inseritur 

Quod claudit o, or, os, vel er. 



Et nOmen desinens in es« 
Si flectit casus imparSs. 



Exceptions* 



15 3 '. — (1.) Ilia feminina sunt 

In -do et -go quae desinunt : 
Sed masculina manent cardo, 
Ligo, ordo, atque, margo. 



[Cardon-, hinge; ligon-, mattock; 
ordon-, rank ; margon-, rim.] 



154:. — (2.) Sunt in -io feminina : 
Tantum ilia masculina, 
Quae vel oculls spectabis, 
Vel tii manibus tractabis. 
(3.) Caro (carnis), mavult se 
FSminlms addere. 
(caron-, flesh). 



* The following are the words used in these exercises ; the declension is indicated 
by the stem, according to 45. 



Ala, wing, ala-. 
Bellum, war, bello-. 
Caput, head, caput-. 
Color, color, color-. 
Dies, day, die-. 
Dominus, lord, domino-. 
Facias, face, facie-. 
Fructus, fruit, fructu-. 
Gener, son-in-law, genero-. 
Honor, honor, honor-. 



Iter, way, itiner-, n. 
Manus, hand, manu-. 
Mensa, table, mensa- 
Miles, soldier, milet-. 
Parens, parent, parent(i)-. 
Pars, part, part(i-). 
Puer, boy, puero— . 
Regnum, kingdom, regno-. 
Res, thing, re- 
Rupes, roclc, rupi-. 



Sedile, seat, sedili-. 
Sella, seat, sella- 
Sermo, speech, sermon-. 
Templum, temple, templo-. 
Tempus, time, tempos-. 
Tuba, trwmpet, tuba- 
Urbs, city, urb(i)-. 
Ventus, wind, vento-. 
Via, way, via-. 
Vulpes,/occ, vulpi-. 



42 



GENDER OF THIRD DECLENSION. [155-164: 



155. — (4.) Neutra pauca sunt in 
or, 

Aequor, ador, marmor, cor; 

Feminmum est arbor. 

[Aequor-, sea ; ador-, spelt ; mar- 
mor-, marble ; cord-, heart ; ar- 
bor-, tree.] 

156. — (5.) Feminlna cos et dos, 

Neutra sunt utrumque os. 

[cot-, whet-stone ; dot-, dowry ; os-, 
mouth ; oss-, bone.] 

157 •-(6.) Neutra multa sunt in er, 
Verber, siler, acer, ver, 
Tuber, uber, et cadaver, 
Piper, iter, etpapdver. 



[ Verber-, blow ; siler-, willow ; 
acer-, maple ; ver-, spring ; tuber-, 
swelling ; itber-, udder ; cadaver-, 
corpse ; piper-, pepper ; iter- (iti- 
ner-), journey ; papaver-, pop- 

py.] 

158, — (1.) Aes est neutrum; sex 
in es, 

Quae flectunt casus imparea 
Feminlna, compes, teges, 
Merces, merges, quies, seges. 

[Aes-, copper ; compedii-), fetter ; 
teget-, mat ; merced-, wages ; mer- 
get-, sheaf; quiet-, rest; seget-, 
crop.] 



Second Principal Mule. 



159* — Feminlnls inseras 

Quae claudunt is, x, aus, et as. 



S cum consonante nexa, 
Es aequaliter inflexa. 



160.— 



Exceptions. 



(1.) Multa sunt quae claudit is 
Masculmi generis, 
Amnis, axis, callis, collis, 
Caulis, cucumis etfollis, 
Fastis, funis, fustis, finis, 
Ignis, orbis, atque crinis, 
JPdnis, piscis, postis, ensis, 
JSentis, cor bis, torquis, men sis, 
Torris, unguis, et candlis, 
Vectis, vermis, et soddlis, 
Cassis, cinis, glls et anguis, 
Lapis, pulvis, atque sanguis. 

[Amni-, river ; axi-,* axle ; 
cfl&'-,*path; colli-, hill; cauli-, 
stalk ; cucumer-, cucumber ;folli-, 
bellows ; fasti-, bundle ; funi-,* 
rope ; fusti-, club ; flni-,* end ; 
igni-, fire; orbi-, globe; crini-, 
hair ; pani-, bread ; pisci-, fish ; 
posti-, post ; cnsi-, sword; senti-* 
path; corbi-, basket; torqui-,* 
collar ; mensi-, month ; torri-, 
brand; ungui-, nail; candli-, 
channel; vecti-, lever; vermi-, 



worm; soddli-, comrade; cassi-, 
snare; ciner-, ash; glis-, dor- 
mouse, angui-* snake; lapid-, 
stone; pulver-, dust; sanguin-, 
blood. Those marked * are also 
found used as feminines.] 

162.-(2.) Pleraque quae claudit ex 
Masculina sunt, ut grex ; 
Sed feminlna manent nex, 
Supellex, ilex, cdrex, lex. 

[Greg-, flock; nee-, death; suppel- 
lec-(til-), furniture; llec-, holm- 
oak ; cdrec-, rush ; leg-, law.] 

163. — (3.) Masculina sunt in ix 
Fornix, phoenix et calix. 

[Fornic-, arch; phrenic-, phoenix; 
calic-, cup.] 

164:* — (4.) Masculina sunt in as 
Vds (vadis), gigds, elephds. 
As (assis), mas et adamds. 
Neutra vds (vdsis), nefds, fas. 

[Vad-, surety; gigant-, giant; ele- 



165-176] 



COMPOUND NOUNS. 



43 



phant-, elephant ; ass-, pound of 
copper; mas-, male; adamant-, 
diamond; vas-, vessel; nefas, 
wrong ; fas, right.] 

165. — (5.) Masculinls adde mons, 
Fons et torrens, gryps et pons. 
Rudens, hydrops, de?is et bi- 
dens, 

Oriens, occidens et tridens. 
Mont(i-), mountain ; font(i-), foun- 



tain ; torrent(i~), torrent ; gryph-, 
griffin ; pont(i-), bridge ; rudent- 
(i-), rope ; hydrop-, dropsy ; dent- 
il-), tooth ; bidenl{i-), pitchfork ; 
(but bident(i-), animal for sacri- 
fice, is fern.) ; orient-, east ; Occi- 
dent-, west ; trident{i-\ trident.] 

167 • — (6.) Masculina sunt in e§ 

verres et aclnaces. 

[Verri-, boar-pig; acinaci-, scimi- 
tar.] 



Third Principal Utile. 

168, — Neutra claudunt a et e 9 ar, nr, us, c 9 1, n 9 et t. 

Exceptions. 



169, — (1.) Masculina sunt in lir 
Furfur, vultur, turtur, fur. 

Furfur-, bran; vultur-, vul- 
ture ; turtur-, turtle-dove ; fur-, 
thief.] 

170. — (2,) Masculina sunt in us 
Lepus (leporis) et mus. 

[Lepos-, hare ; mus-, mouse.] 

171. — (3.) Feminina sunt in lis 
VirtHs, atque servitus, 
Juventas, incus, atque palus, 
senectus, tellus atque salus ; 
Quibus longa manet u 
In genitivi transitu. 

[ Virtut-, virtue ; servitut-, sla- 
very ; juventut-, youth ; palud-, 



marsh ; senectut-, old age ; tellus-, 
earth ; sal at-, health.] 

172. — (4.) Est etpecus (pecudis.) 

Feminml generis. 
[ pecud-, a head of cattle.] 

1 73* — (5.) Mascula in 1 sunt mugil, 
consul, sal, sol, atque pugil. 

[mugil-, mullet; consul-, consul; 
sal-, salt ; sol-, sun; pugil-, boxer.] 

174:. — (6.) Masculina sunt ren, 
splen, 
Pecten, delphin, attagen. 

[ren-, kidney ; splen^, spleen ; pec- 
ten-, comb ; delphin-, dolphin ; 
attagen-, heath-fowl.] 

17 S. — (7.) Feminina sunt in on. 
Gorgon, sindon, halcyon. 

[ Gorgon-, gorgon ; sindon-, linen ; 
halcyon-, king-fisher. 

\ 



DOUBLE OR COMPOUND NOUNS. 

170. — There are a few nouns which are made up of two nouns of 
different declensions. In these — 

(1.) If two nominatives combine, both parts are declined, and then they 
are often printed separately, as respublica, or res publica. 

(2.) If a nominative combines with an oblique case, the noun in the 



44 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [177 

nominative only is declined, as paterfamilias, father of a family. These 

also are sometimes printed separately. 

Respublica, a commonwealth. Fern, (re-publica-.) 
Singular. Plural. 

N. respublica, N. respublieae, 

G. reipublicae, G. rerumpublicarum, 

D. reipublicae, D. rgbuspublieis, 

Ac. rempublicam, Ac. respublicas, 

V. respublica, V. rSspublicae, 

Ab. republica. Ab. rebuspublicis. 

Jusjurandum, an oath, Neut. (jus-jurando-). 

Singular. Plural. 

K jusjurandum, N. jurajuranda, 

G. jurisjtlrandi, G. 

D, jurijurand5, D. 

Ac. jusjurandum, Ac. jurajuranda, 

V. jusjurandum, V. jurajuranda. 

Ab. jurejurand5. Ab. 

Materfamilias, a mistress of a family, Fern, (matr-familias.) 

Singular. 
JV. materfamilias, 
G. matrisfamilias, 
D. matrifamilias, 
Ac. matremfamilias, 
V. materfamilias, 
Ab. matrefamilias. 

Here, familias is an old form of the genitive (54), and is governed by 
mater. So, Paterfamilias, filius-famllids, f ilia familias. PL mdtresfami- 
liarum, etc. In this way, familiae is used as well as familias. 

IRREGULAR OR ANOMALOUS NOUNS. 

Some nouns are defective^ L c, want some of their parts. 
A. Nouns defective in number, i. e., such as are used only 
in one number. 

177* — I. Only in the singular (singraiaria, tantiim). 

(1.) Proper names, as Caesar, Italia, Roma. These are used in the 
plural — 

(a) If there are several individuals of the same name : as tres Scipiones, 

three men named Scipio. 
(6.) If they are used as common nouns : Cicerones, orators like Cicero. 



178, 179] IEEEGULAR NOUNS. 45 

(2.) Abstract nouns: pietds, piety; justitia, justice. Yet these are 
sometimes found in the plural, if they are conceived as attributes of several 
individuals : amoves, loves ; odia, hatreds. 

(3.) Collective nouns : vulgus, plebs, the common people. 

(4.) Material nouns : aes, bronze ; ferrum, iron. But such words are 
sometimes used in the plural to denote things made of the material, as 
aera, statues of bronze ; ligna, logs of wood. 

(5.) Some separate words, as album, list ; mundus, female ornament. 

17 8* — II. Only in the plural (pluralist tantnm), 

(1.) Many names of cities, groups of islands, mountains, etc. : Athenae, 
Athens ; Alpes, the Alps ; Baleares, the Balearic Islands. 

(2.) Names of festivals, as indicating the several games or sacrifices 
which together made up the festival : Latlnae, Saturnalia, Terminalia. 

(3.) Some common nouns only applicable to classes : majores, ances- 
tors ; liberi, children ; posterl, descendants. 

(4.) Many separate words : arma, arms ; argutiae, shrewdness ; dlvitiae, 
riches ; insidiae, ambush ; moenia, walls ; manes, shades of the dead ; reli- 
quiae, remnant ; Idus, the Ides ; Nonae, the Nones. 
i 

179. — in. Variation in sense. There are many nouns which 
are used with one meaning in the singular, and another in the plural. Thus • 

Singular. Plural. 

Aedes, a temple. Aedes, (1) a house, (2) temples. 

Aqua, water. Aquae, (1) waters, (2) mineral 

springs. 
I Auxilium, assistance. Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 

Bonum, any thing good. Bona, goods, property. 

Career, a prison. Carceres, the barriers of a race- 

course. 

Castrum, a fort. Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a place in the Roman Comitia, an assembly of the people 
forum where the comitia were held. for the purpose of voting. 

Copia, plenty. Copiae, troops. 

Facultas, power, ability. Faculties, wealth, property. 

Fastis, a bundle of twigs, a fagot. Fasces, a bundle of rods carried be- 

fore the chief magistrate of Home. 

Finis, the end of any thing. Fines, borders, territory. 

Fortuna, fortune. Fortunae, an estate, possessions. 

Gratia, grace, favor. Gratiae, thanks. 

Hortus, a garden. HortI, (1) gardens, (2) pleasure- 

grounds. 



46 IRREGULAR NGUJSTS. [180-182 

Singular. Plural. 

Lltera, a letter of the alphabet. Literse, (1) a letter, epistle, (2) letters, 

(3) literature. 
Natalis, a birth-day. Natales, birth, descent. 

Opera, labor. Operae, workmen. 

Opis (genitive), help. Opes, wealthy power. 

Pars, a part, portion. Partes, (1) parts, (2) a party, fac- 

tion. 
Principium, a beginning, a first prin- Principia, a place in the camp where 

ciple, or element the general's tent stood. 

Rostrum, the beak of a bird, the Rostra, a stage in the Roman forum, 
sharp part of the prow of a ship. from which orators used to address 

the people. 
Sal, salt. Sal6s, witticisms. 

Observe that some of these words have in the plural a meaning corre- 
sponding to that of the singular, as well as a different meaning. 

JB, Nouns defective in case: i. e., nouns which want some 
of their cases. 

A noun used in one case only, is sometimes called a monoptote ; in two 
cases, a dipiote ; in three, a triptote ; in four, a tetraptote ; in five, a pen- 
taptote. An indeclinable word is called an aptote. These words are de- 
rived from the Greek numerals and the word tttoto-, declined. 

180. — I. Many neuters are used only in their three similar cases, 

nom., voc, ac. 

(1.) Greek nouns ending in os: epos, epic poem; melos, strain; plural, 
epe, mele. 

(2.) Some Latin nouns (singularia tantum) : fas, right ; nefas, wrong ; 
instar, image ; nihil (nil), nothing. 

181. — II. Many other nouns are used in the singular throughout, but 
are found only in the similar cases of the plural, nom., voc, ac. : collum, 
neck ; far, corn ; fel, gall ; mel, honey ; pax, peace ; pix, pitch ; rus, the 
country , and most words of the fifth declension (147), with some of the 
fourth, as metus, fear. 

182. — III. There are several more words which are defective in case, 
the chief of which are given in the following list. The cases found in use 
are noted by the letters N., G., D., A., Ab. before the word, for the singu- 
lar, and after the word, for the plural. The words are given in their stems 
in order that there may be no possibility of mistake about the declension. 
A * placed before or after a word implies that the singular or the plural is 
found throughout. 



183-185] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 47 

Ab. ambag-, */. winding. Ab. juger-, D. Ab. acre. 

A. Ab. cassi-, *m. net. N. A. Ab. lui- /. pestilence (n. s. 

Ab. comped(i-), */. fetter. lues). 

G. D. A. Ab. dap-, */. feast. N. A. Ab. mani- n. morning 

G. B. A. Ab. dicion-,/. sway. (Ab. mane). 

Ab. fauc(i-), */. throat. G. nauco-, n. trifle. 

fora- " f. A. D. Ab., Ab. obec- *e. barrier, 

door. G. A. Ab. op- *f. help. 

N. Ab. fort-, /. chance. Ab. pondo-, pound. 

G. D. A. Ab. frag-, */. fruit. A. Ab. prec- */. prayer. 

N. gl6s-, /. sister-in-law. iV r . A. senti- m. JV.Ab. thorn 

grat-, /. JST. A. Ab., A. Ab. sordi- *f filth. 

thanks. G. Ab. spont-, /. choice. 

incita-, 2 A. standstill. D. A. venu- m. veno-, n. 
infitia-, 3 A. denial. 



ingratia- Ab. unwill- G. A. Ab. vie- /. JSf. D. A. Ab. 

bigness. change. 

N. inquiet-, /. unrest. N. A. Ab. vTs(i-), */. force. 

C. Nouns defective in declension: i. e. y indecKnable 
nouns. 

183* — (1.) The names of the letters of the alphabet : alpha, beta, etc. 

(2.) Words used as nouns without really being so : as, triste illud vale, 
that sad word, farewell. 

(3.) Secus, sex, and semis, half, used as an adjective. 

(4.) Some foreign names, as Jacob, Gabriel (but these have sometimes 
Latinized forms, Jacobus, and are declined). Jesus has Jesum in the ace. 
and Jesu in other cases. 

184.— Some nouns are variable : i. e., have some of their 
cases differing either in declension or in gender from others. 

Nouns variable in declension are those which form some of their cases 
from more than one stem. These are called heteroclites (from erepo-, 
another ; kIlto-, declined). 

Nouns variable in gender are those which are of different genders in 
some of their cases. These are called heterogeneous {erepo-, 
another; yevec-, gender. 

185.— I. Heteroclite Nouns. 

(1.) Several nouns belong to the second and fourth declensions, partic- 

1 Only used in a locative sense : to, at, or from the doors. 

2 Only used in the phrase ad incitds (or ad incita) redigere, " to reduce to ex- 
tremities." 11 

8 Only used in connection with Ire, injitids Ire, " to deny. 11 



48 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [186, 187 

ularly names of trees: as cupressus, cypress ; plnus, pine (142). Some 
nouns of the fourth declension have rarely a gen. in i; senatus, senate ; 
tumultus, tumult ; sumptus, expense. 

(2.) Jugerum ( jugero-, n.), acre, has some forms of the third decl. (from 
juger-, 182). 

(3.) Vas (vas-, n.), a vessel, has the plural of the second decl. (vaso- n.). 

(4.) Names of festivals, as Bacchanalia {Bacchdnali-), have sometimes 
the gen. plur. in drum, as if from a stem in o. 

(5.) Requies (requiet-), rest, has sometimes the ace. and abl. sing, re- 
quiem, requie, of the fifth decl. 

(6.) Many nouns of the third decl. (^-sterns) have the nom. sing, in es, as 
if of the fifth decl. : nubes, cloud ; and some have this along with the regu- 
lar form in is : feles and felis, cat ; vulpes and vulpis, fox : fames, hunger, 
has also the abl. sing, fame. Also, pleb-, the commonalty, has sometimes 
the nom. gen. dat. sing, of the fifth decl. 

(7.) Many nouns of the first declension have forms also of the fifth 
(150): barbaria and barbaries, barbarism; mollitia and mollilies, softness. 

186.— II. Heterogeneous Nouns. 

Some nouns adopt either regularly or generally a dif- 
ferent gender in the plural from that of the singular. Some 
of these are also heteroclite. The chief of these are : 

Singular. Plural. 

jocus, m. jest. joci, m. and joca, n. 

locus, m. place. loci, m. (topics, passages) and loca, n. 

(places). 

sibihis, m. hissing. slbill, m. and (poetic) sibila, n. 

carbasus, f. canvas. carbasa, n. (rarely carbasl, m.). 

margarlta, f. pearl. margaritae, f. and margarita, n. 

caelum, n. heaven. caeli, m. 

frenum, n. rein. freni, m. andfrena, n. 

rostrum, n. rake. rastri, m. and rastra, n. 

epulum, n. festival. epulae, f. banquet. 

balneum, n. bath. balneae, f. and later balnea, n. 

187. — Also the following proper names have neuter 
forms in the plural : 

Dindymus, m. a hill in Phrygia ; Ismarus, m. a hill in Thrace. 
Maenalus, m. a mountain in Arcadia ; Pangseus, m. a mountain in Thrace. 
Tartarus, m. hell ; Taygetus, m. a mountain in Laconia ; Pergamus, f. the 
citadel of Troy. 



189, 190] THE ADJECTIVE. 49 

188. — Some nouns have two forms of different gen- 
ders or declensions, or both. Thus : 

condtus (condtu-, m.), and cOnatum (condto-, n.), attempt. 
menda (menda-, £), and mendum (niendo-, n.), fault. 
clipeus (clipeo-, m. and rarely n. ), shield. 
baculum (baculo-, n. and rarely m.), staff. 
callum (callo-, n. and rarely m.), callosity. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

189. — An Adjective is a word used to qualify 
a substantive ; as, vir bonus, a good man ; decem 
naves, teist ships. 

A noun is qualified by an adjective when the object named is thereby 
described, limited, or distinguished from other things of the same name. 

1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and case, and, 
of most adjectives, also comparison. 

2. Adjectives, in Latin, indicate the gender, number, and case, by the 
termination; as, bon-us, bon-a, bon-um. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, while, in 
time and signification, they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termination in the 
nominative, and consequently have three terminations. Some have 
one form common to the masculine and feminine, and are adjectives of two 
terminations ; and some are adjectives of one termination 9 
which is common to all genders. 

5. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions, or of the 
third only. 

6. Adjectives of three terminations (except thirteen), are of the first 
and second declensions ; but those of one or two terminations, are of 

j the third. 

Exc. Thirteen adjectives in er, of three terminations, are of the third 
j declension. (See 198.) 

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 

190. — Adjectives of the first and second declensions 
have the masculine always in us or er ; the feminine al- 
i ways in a, and the neuter always in um ; as, masculine 
bonus, feminine bona, neuter bonum, good. 
4 



50 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



[190 



The masculine in us is declined like dominus^ and in er 
like puer or liber / the feminine in a, like penna y and the 
neuter in um^ like regnum : thus, 

1. Bonus, bona, bonum, good (bono- m. or w., bona-/.). 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Masc. Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. Neut. 


2V. 


bonus, a, 


am, 


JSF. bonl, 


se, a, 


£. 


bonl, se, 


s, 


(r. bonOrum, grnm, Oral 


D. 


bono, fce, 


o, 


D. bonis, 


Is, Is, 


-4c. 


bonum, am, 


am, 


Ac. bonOs, 


as, a, 


V. 


bone, a, 


am, 


V. bonl, 


a^, a, 


Ab. 


bono, a, 


o. 


^L6. bonis, 


Is, Is. 




In the same m 


anner decline : 






Altus, A^. 


Cavus, 


hollow. 


Lsetus, joyful. 




Amplus, /ar^e. 


Doctus, 


learned. 


Plenus, full. 




Blandus, flattering. 


Dtirus, 


hard. 


Prlvatus, private. 




Cams, dear. 


Fidus, faithful. 


Rectus, right. 



Also all participles, numerals, and pronouns, in us ; as, amdtus, amatu- 
rus, amandus, — -primus, secundus, etc. — meus, iuus, suus. 

Note.— Mens has ml in the vocative masculine, seldom mens. 
2. Tener, tenera, tenerum, tender (tenero-, m. or n. y tenera-, /.). 



Masc. 
N. tener, 
G. teneri, 
D. tenero, 
Ac. tenerum, 
V. tener, 
Ab. tenero, 



Singular. 
Fern. 



a, 

se, 

se, 

am, 

a« 



a, 



Neut. 
am, 

5» 

o, 

am, 

am, 

o. 



Plural. 

Jfasc. Fern. Neut. 

i\T. teneri, se, a, 

(r. tener Oram, arum, Oram 



D. tenerls, 
Ac. tenerOs, 
V. teneri, 
Ab. tenerls, 



is, 

as, 

se, 
is, 



is, 
a, 
a, 
Is. 



In the same manner decline : 



Asper, rough. Miser, wretched. Lacer, mangled. 

Liber, free. Prosper, prosperous. Satur, full (satura, saturum). 

Also, compounds derived from gero andfero ; a% laniger, bearing wool ; 
opifer, bringing help. But asper sometimes is declined like ater. £ 

But most adjectives in er lose the e in all the genders, i. e. the e does 
not belong to the stem, but is only euphonieally inserted in the rjflpin. sing. 
(See 60.) 



191, 192] 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



51 



3, Ater, atra, atrum, black (atro-, m. or n., atra-, /.). 

Plural. 
Masc. Fern. Kent. 

N. atri, atrsB, atra, 

G% atrorwm, atrarum, atrorum, 
Z>. atrls, atrls, atrls, 

^Lc. atros, atras, atra, 

V. atri, atrse, atra, 

Ab. atrls, atrls, atrls. 

In like manner decline : 
JSger, sick. Macer, lean. Sacer, sacred. 

Creber, frequent. Pulcer,/<m\ Sinister, &/*. 

Dexter, right, has t&atfra, dextrum ; or dextera, dexterum. 

191. — 4. The following adjectives have the genitive singular in lus, 
and the dative in I ; namely, 







Singular. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Kent. 


jsr. 


ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


G. 


atri, 


atra^, 


atri, 


D. 


atro, 


atra^, 


atro, 


Ac. 


atrium, 


atram. 


atrum, 


V. 


ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


Ab. 


atro, 


atra, 


atro* 



Alius, another of many. 
Alter (altero-), the other of two. 
Alteruter, the one or^other. 
Neuter, neither. 
Nullus, none. 



Solus, alone. 

Totus, ivhole 

Ullus, any. 

Unus, one. 

Uter (utro-), whether. 



And the compounds of uter, uterlibet, uter vis, which of the two you 
please, uterque each, in which the syllables libet, vis, que, are attached to 
each form of uter. 



In the other cases, they are like bonus, tener, or ater ; as, 

TOTUS, TOTA, TOTUM, whole. 



Masc. 
N. totus, 
G. totlus, 
D. toti, 
Ac. totum, 
V. tote, 
Ab. toto, 



Singular. 

Fern. 

a, 



las, 

am, 

a, 

a, 



Neut. 

am, 

las, 



L 9 

am, 

o. 



Plural. 
Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. toti, ae, a, 

G. totorum, arum, drum, 

B. totxs, Is, Is, 

Ac. totos, 
V. toti, 
Ab. totls, 



IS, 



a, 
a, 
Is. 



Alteruter is sometimes declined in both its parts, and sometimes only in 
the latter, thus : genitive, alterius utrlus, or alterutrius. 

192. — The ending ius in the genitive of these words (except, perhaps, 
alter) is always to be read in prose with I. But all of them, with the ex- 
ception of alius, are often found short in poetry. Alius has I, because there 



52 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



[193 



is in it a double contraction. Thus, the stem being alio-, we have first alio- 
his, then aliius, and lastly alms. The neuter nom. and ace. sing, of alius is 
aliud, and the dat. sing, is alii. 

Some of these adjectives are occasionally found with the common end- 
ings in the genitive and dative. Cicero has aliae pecudis, Caesar has alterae 
legioni, and nullo consilio (dat.). 



ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

193. — Rule 1. Adjectives of the third declension 
have e or I in the ablative singular ; but if the neuter is in 
e, the ablative has 1 only. (194.) 

Rule 2. The genitive plural ends in ium, and the neu- 
ter of the nominative, accusative, and vocative, in ia. 

Exc. Except comparatives, which have urn and a, 
(195, 196.) 

I. Adjectives of one termination (consonant-stems). 
1. Felix, happy (felic(i-)). i 



Sing 


ular. 




Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. Fern. 


JSTeut. 


N. felix (=cs), 


felix, 


felix, 


N. fellces, es, 


ia, 


G. fellcis, 


is, 


is, 


G. fellcium, ium, 


ium, 


1>. fellcl, 


5, 


s> 


B. felicitous, itous, 


itous, 


Ac. fellcem, 


em, 


felix, 


Ac. fellces, es, 


ia, 


V. felix, 


felix, 


felix, 


V. fellces, es, 


ia, 


Ab. fellce or I, 


e or I, e or I. 


Ab. felicitous, itous, 


itous, 






In like manner decline : 




FerOx, bold. 




Supplex, suppliant. Trux, -ucis, cruel. 


Sagax, sagacious. 


Tenax, tenacious. Velox, -oris, 


swift. 




2. Prudens, prudent (prudent(i-)). 








Singular. 




Masc. 




Fern. jsr eut . 




N. prudens (= 


=ts), 


prudens, prudens, 




G. prudentis, 




prudentis, prudentis, 




D. prudentl, 




prudentl, prudentl, 




Ac. prudentem, 


prudentem, prudens, 




V. prudens, 




prudens, prudens, 




Ab. prudente, 


or I. 


prudent 


e, or I. prudente, < 


?r I # 



)4r- 


196] 


THE ADJECTIVE. 
Plural. 


53 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


prudent© s, 


prudentes, 


prudentia, 


G. 


prudentium, 


prudentium, 


prudentium, 


D. 


prtidentibus, 


prtidentibus, 


priidentibus, 


Ac. 


prudentes, 


prudentes, 


prudentia, 


V. 


prudentes, 


prudentes, 


prudentia, 


Ab 


prudentlbus. 


prudentlbus. 
In like manner decline : 


prudentibus. 




Clemens, -tis, gentle. Ingens, great. 


Recens, fresh. 



Also all participles in tis ; as, amans, docens, legens, audiens, etc. 

Note. — Participles have e oftener than i in the ablative singular, and in 
the ablative absolute they have e only. 

194, — In adjectives of one ending the ablative is much more com- 
monly found in I than in e. The following, however, have e always : com- 
pos {compot-), possessing ; deses (desed-), sluggish ; pauper (pauper-), poor ; 
princeps (princep-), foremost ; pubis (puber-), adult ; sospes (sospet-), safe ; 
superstes (superstet-), surviving ; and almost always ales (diet-), winged ; 
chves (divet-), rich ; commonly, too, vetus (vetes-), old ; uber (uber-), fertile. , 
On the contrary, par (par-), equal, and memor (mentor-), mindful, always 
have i. 

195. — The neuter plural (ia) is formed only from those adjec- 
tives of one termination whose stems end in ant-, ent-, at-, ert-, ord-, ac-, 
$ c _ oc- (e. g. elegans, sapiens, Larlnas, sollers, concors, tenax, felix, ferox), 
and from numeral adjectives in plex-, such as simplex, duplex ; and from 
the following : aneeps (ancipit-), two-sided; praeceps (praecipit-), steep; 
locuples (locuplet-), rich ; par (par-), equal ; and in later writers a few 
others. Vetus has Vetera. 

196. — The genitive plural has um in those adjectives which 
have e in the ablative sing. (194). Also, memor, mindful, cicur, tame, and 
compounds in ceps (like aneeps, ancipit-). But plus, more, and its com- 
pound complures, have ium. 

II. Adjectives of two terminations (chiefly I-st ems). 

3. Mitis, mite, meek (miti-). 







Singular. 






Plural. 








Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


mitis, 


is, 


e> 


N. 


mites, 


es, 


ia, 


a. 


mitis, 


is, 


is, 


a. 


mitiitm, 


iam, 


ium, 


D. 


miti, 


s, 


s, 


D. 


mitibus, 


ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac. 


mltem, 


em, 


e. 


Ac. 


mites, 


es, 


ia, 


V. 


mitis, 


is, 


e, 


V. 


mites, 


es, 


ia, 


Ab, 


miti, 


*t 


I. 


Ab. 


mitibus, 


ibus, 


ibus* 



54 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



[197, 198 



197. 



In the same maimer decline : 

Agilis, active. Debilis, weak. Talis, such. 

Brevis, short. Incolumis, safe. Utilis, useful. 

4. Comparative Degree, — Mitior, mItius, more meek (mitior-). 





Singular. 
Masc. Fern. 


JVeut. 


Plurc 
Masc. 


il. 
Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


mitior, 


mitior, 


mItius, 


JV. mitiores, 


e"s, 


a, 


G. 


mltioris, 


is, 


Is, 


G, miti5riim, 


urn. 


um, 


D. 


mitiorl, 


s, 


5, 


D. nritiorifeiis. 


il£ii@ 9 


11* IIS, 


Ac. 


mitiorem, 


em, 


mitius, 


Ac. mitiores, 


es, 


a, 


V. 


mitior, 


mitior, 


mitius, 


V. mitiores, 


es, 


a, 


Ab. 


mitiore or 1 


, e or I, 


eor I. 


Ab. mitioril>us, 


ibas, 


ibus* 








In like manner decline : 








Altior, higher. 
Brevior, shorter. 
Durior, harder. 


Fellcio 
Fortioi 
Major, 


r, happier. Melior, better. 
•, braver. Mollior, softer 
greater. Fcjor, worse. 





Comparative adjectives have the ablative in e much more com- 
monly than in i. 

Plus, more, has only the neuter gender in the singular, and is thus 
declined : 

Singular. 
Neut. 
N. plus, 
G. pluris, 
D. 



Ac. plus. 

V. 

Ab. plure. 







Plural. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Weut. 


jsr. 


plures, 


es, 


a (ia), 


G. 


plurium, 


ium, 


ium, 


D. 


pluribus, 


ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac. 


plures, 


es, 


a (ia), 


V. 




,^_^_ 





ibus, 



ibus. 



Ab. pluribus, 

Note. — The neuter plural in ia is hardly ever used. The compound, 
complures, has no singular. 

198. — in. Adjectives of three terminations (-n-stems). 

5. Acer or acris, acre, sharp (acri-). 
Singular. 



Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. acer, or acris, is, e 9 

G. acris, is 9 is, 

D. acri, I 9 I 9 

Ac. acrem, em, e, 

V. acer, or acris, is, e, 

Ab. acri, I, I. 



Masc. 
N. acres, 
acrinisi, 
acriforas, 
Ac. acres, 
V. acr^s, 
Ab. acrilras, 



G. 
D. 



Plural. 
Fern. 

es, 

ium, 

ibus, 

es, 
es, 
ibus, 



JVeut. 
ia, 
ism, 
ibus, 
ia, 
ia, 
ibus* 



199, 200] IRREGULAK ADJECTIVES. 55 

The ending is is sometimes found masculine, and the ending er very 
rarely feminine. 

Besides deer, the following twelve are declined in this way : 
Alacer, cheerful. Equester, equestrian. Saluber, wholesome. 

Campester, flat, level. Paluster, marshy. Silvester, woody. 

Celeber, famous. Pedester, on foot. Terrester, terrestrial. 

Celer, swift. Puter, putrid. Volucer, swift. 

Celer retains e before r in all its forms, and has um instead of ium in 
the gen. plur. 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
Irregular adjectives are Defective or Redundant. 

I. DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 
100 . — 1. The adjectives frugi, temperate (really a dat. sing, of f rug-) ; 
sal or satis, sufficient ; semis, half; and the plurals quot, how many ? tot, so 
many ; aliquot, some ; quotquot, and quotcunque, how maDy soever ; totidem, 
just so many, are indeclinable* Nequam, worthless, is also indeclin- 
able, but used in both numbers. 

2. Exspes, hopeless, and potis, neuter pote sometimes potis, able, are 
used only in the nominative* They are of all genders, and potis is 
also found joined with plural nonns. 

Tantundem, as much, has tantldem in the genitive, and tantundem, m. 
and n., in the nominative and accusative singular. 

Necesse, or necessum, necessary; and volupe, pleasant, are used only in 
the nominative and accusative singular. 

3. Made and macti, common words of encouragement, brave ! gallant ! 
are used only in the vocative singular and plural. 

Primoris, genitive, first, wants the nominative and vocative singular, 
and the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural neuter ; likewise, semi- 
necis, half dead, which is not used in the neuter, and has seminecum in the 
genitive plural. 

Pauci, few, and plerique, the most part, are seldom used in the singular. 

Caeter, or caeterus, the rest, is not used in the nominative singular mas- 
culine. 

Victrix, victorious, and ultrix, revengeful, are only feminine in the sin- 
gular, but feminine and neuter in the plural : victrices, victricia. 

II. REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 
200* — Several adjectives have forms of three endings 
(stems in o-, m. or n., and a-, f.), and also of two endings 
(stems in £-). The chief of this sort are: 



56 



EXERCISES. 



exanimua, a, urn, 
semianimus, a, um, 
unanimus, a, um, 
imbecillus, a, um, 
inermus, a, um (rare), 
semisomnus, a, um, 
bijugus, a, um, 
hilarus, a, um (rare), 
effrenus, a, um, 
prochvus, a, um (rare), 



and exanimis, e. lifeless, 

and semianimis, e. half alive. 

and unanimis, e. (rare), harmonious. 

and imbecillis, e. (rare), weak. 

and inermis, e. unarmed. 

and semisomnis, e. half asleep. 

and bijugis, e. double-yoked. 

and hilaris, e. cheerful. 

and effrenis, e. (rare), unbridled. 

and prochvis, e. prone. 



EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES. 
1. Adjectives and substantives to be declined together 



Parva casa, a small cottage. 
Clarus poeta, a famous poet. 
Pulcra f ilia, a beautiful daughter. 
Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. 
Docilis puer, a docile boy (puero-). 
Breve sevum, a short life. 
Capax antrum, a capacious den. 
Magnum opus, a great work (opes-). 
Serenus dies, a clear day (die-). 
Densa niibes, a thick cloud (ntibi-). 
Fidus pastor, a faithful shepherd. 



Alta arbor, a high tree. 
Priscus mos, an ancient custom. 
Calida sestas, a warm summer. 
Tutus portus, a safe harbor. 
Nobile carmen, a noble poem. 
Antlqua urbs, an ancient city. 
Magna dos, a great dowry (dOt(i-)). 
Cava navis, a hollow ship. 
Culpatus Paris, wicked Paris (Parid-). 
Miser Tros, a miserable Trojan. 
Infellx Dido, unhappy Dido. 



2. Translate the following words into English, according to their 
number and case : 



Operis magnl, 
Claro poetae, 
Diel sereno, 
Diel serenl, 
Densis niibibus, 
Fldi pastoris, 
^Evo brevi, 



Urbem antiquam, 
Poetis clarls, 
Puerl dociles, 
Dote magna, 
Morum priscorum, 
Carminis nobilis, 
Calida sestate, 



Urbis antiquae, 
Paridi culpato, 
Arbor es alta3, 
Trois miseri, 
Dido infellci, 
Portibus ttitls, 
Dulcium pomOrum. 



3. Translate the following phrases into Latin, observing to put 
the adjective in the same gender, number, and case, with the substan- 
tive. The words will be found in the list above : 



To a small cottage, 
Of a capacious den, 
From lofty trees, 
For unhappy Dido, 
In a hollow ship, 
A wretched Trojan, 
With thick clouds, 
From a clear day, 



Of sweet apples, 
High trees, 
With great dowries, 
Of ancient customs, 
Of an ancient city, 
To a great work, 
wicked Paris, 
Faithful shepherds, 



In a short life, 
With a sweet apple, 
With clear days, 
Noble poems, 
Of ancient cities, 
In small cottages, 
In a great work, 
With wicked Paris, 



201, 202] 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



57 



A safe harbor, 
In a clear day, 
Of small cottages, 



To a thick cloud, 
With high trees, 
Beautiful daughters, 



In a warm summer, 
Of a short life, 
With docile boys. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

201. — Numeral Adjectives are those which sig- 
nify number. In Latin they are divided into four classes, viz. : 

1. Cardinal, which express number simply, answer- 
ing the question " quot," or " how many ? " as, one, two, 
three, four, etc. 

2. Ordinal, denoting the place of any thing in a row 
or series (prdon-), and answering the question " quotus," 
or " which in numerical order ? " as, first, second, third, 
fourth, etc. 

3. Distributive, answering the question " quoterii," 
or "how many to each ?" as, bini, two by two, or two to 
each. 

4. Multiplicative, answering the question " quotu- 
plex," or " how many fold ? " 

I. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

202. — The Cardinal numbers are : 

one. 

two. 

three. 

four. 

Jive. 

six. 

seven. 

eight. 

nine. 

ten. 

eleven. 

twelve. 

thirteen. 

fourteen. 

fifteen. 

sixteen. 



Unus, \ 


I. 


Duo, V declined. 


n. 


Tres, ) 


ni. 


Quatuor, 


mi, or IV. 


Quinque, 


v. 


Sex, 


VI. 


Septem, 


vn. 


Octo, 


vm. 


Novem, 


Villi, or IX. 


Decern, 


X. 


Undecim, 


XI. 


Duodecim, 


XII. 


Tredecim, 


XIII. 


Quatuordecim, 


Xnil, or XIV. 


Quindecim, 


XV. 


Sedecim, or Sexdecim, 


XVI. 



58 



EXAMPLES. 



Septemdecim, 


XVII. 


seventeen* 


Duodeviginti, 1 


XVIII. 


eighteen. 


Unde viginti, 1 


XVIIII, or XIX. 


nineteen. 


Viginti, 


XX. 


twenty. 


Viginti unus, or ( ) 
Unus et viginti, 3 ) 


XXI. 


twenty-one. 






Viginti duo, or \ 
Duo et viginti, etc. ) 


XXII. 


twenty-two. 






Duodetnginta, 1 


XXVIII. 


twenty-eight. 


Undetriginta, 1 


XXIX. 


twenty-nine. 


Triginta, 


XXX. 


thirty. 


Quadraginta, 


XXXX, or XL. 


forty. 


Quinquaginta, 


L. 


fifty. 


Sexaginta, 


LX. 


sixty. 


Septuaginta, 


LXX. 


seventy. 


Octoginta, 


LXXX. 


eighty. 


Nonaginta, 


LXXXX, or XC. 


ninety. 


Centum, 


C. 


a hundred. 


Centum unus, or ) 
Centum et unus, etc. J 


CI. 


a hundred and one, etc. 






DucentI, -se, -a, 


CO. 


two hundred. 


TrecentI, 


ccc. 


three hundred. 


Quadringenti, 


cccc. 


four hundred. 


Quingenti, 


10, or D. 


five hundred. 


SexcentI, 


IOC, DC. 


six hundred. 


Septingenti, 


IOCC, or DCC. 


seven hundred. 


Octingenti, 


IOCCC, or DCCC. 


eight hundred. 


Nongenti, 


IOCCCC, or DCCCC. 


nine hundred. 


Mille, 


010, or M. 


a thousand. 


Duo millia, or } 
Bis mille, ) 


CIOCIO, or MM. 


two thousand. 


Quinque millia, or ) 
Quinquies mille, ) 


100, or V. 


five thousand. 


Decern millia, or ) 
Decies mille, ) 


CCIOO, or X. 


ten thousand. 


Quinquaginta millia, or ) 
Quinquagies mille, ) 


1000, or L. 


fifty thousand. 


Centum millia, or ) 
Centies mille, ) 


CCCI000, or C. 


a hundred thousand. 



1 Literally, two from twenty, one from twenty, and so for the corresponding num- 
bers of each of the other decades. 

2 In compounding numbers from twenty up to one hundred either the tens without 
et, or the units with et, are placed first, as in English. The hundreds in prose are 
always placed before the tens with or without et, then the tens, then the units, as 
centum sexaginta septem or centum et sexaginta septem, 167. 



203-205] 



NOTATION BY LETTERS. 



59 



OBSERVATIONS. 

203. — 1. Eighteen and nineteen are sometimes expressed by decern et 
octo and decern et novem. 

2. The Cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, want the singular. 

3. Unus, as a numeral, is not used in the plural, except when joined 
with a substantive that wants the singular ; as, una moenia, one wall ; or 
when several particulars are considered as one whole ; as, una vestlmenta, 
one suit of clothes. (See 209.) Unus is declined like totus (191). 

Duo, two, and Tres, three, are thus declined : 







Singular. 








Plural. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 




3fasc. 


Fern. 


Kent 


K 


duo, 


duse, 


duo, 


N. 


tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


a. 


duorum, 


duarum, 


duorum, 


a. 


trium, 


trium, 


trium, 


D. 


duobus, 


duabus, 


duobus, 


D. 


tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus, 


Ac. 


duos, -o, 


duas, 


duo, 


Ac. 


tr6s, 


tres, 


tria, 


V. 


duo, 


duse, 


duo, 


V. 


tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


Ab. 


duobus, 


duabus, 


duobus, 


Ab. 


tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus. 



Ambo, both, is declined like duo, but the o is usually long. Duo has o 
once in Virgil. Duo has often the gen. plur. duum. It is not declined 
when it forms part of a compound numeral, as duodecim. 

4. All the cardinal numbers, from quatuor to centum inclusive, are inde- 
clinable ; and from centum to mille, they are declined like the plural of bonus 
(190). 

204:. — Mille (or mile) is used as an undeclined numeral, and with 
the plural forms millia, millium, millibus. 

Mille is (a) A substantive in the nom. or ace. case : mille hominum, a 
thousand (of) men. 
(6) An adjective in any case : de mille fabae modus, from a 
thousand pecks of beans. 

lliUia is always a substantive : duo millia armatorum, two thousand (of) 
armed men. But if a declined numeral with its noun follows, the genitive 
may be understood after millia : tria millia (militum) et quingentl militts, 
three thousand five hundred soldiers. 

ROMAN METHOD OF NOTATION BY LETTERS. 

203. — The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were 
C, I, L, V, X, which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I denotes 
one ; V, five ; X, ten ; L, fifty ; and C, a hundred. By the various com- 
binations of these letters, all numbers were expressed as follows : 

The repetition of a letter repeats its value ; thus, II signifies two ; III, 
three : XX, twenty ; XXX, thirty ; CC, two hundred ; CCC, three hundred, 
etc. V and L are never repeated. 



60 



ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



[206, 207 



When a letter of less value is placed before another of greater value, 

the value of the less is taken from the greater. When placed after it, the 
value of the less is added to the greater ; thus : 

IV. Four, V. Five, VI. Six. 

IX. Nine, X. Ten, XI. Eleven. 

XL. Forty, L. Fifty, LX. Sixty. 

XO. Ninety, C. A hundred, CX. A hundred and ten. 

A thousand was marked CIO, which was afterwards expressed by M, the 
initial of mille. Five hundred is marked 10, afterwards changed into D. 

The annexing of to 10 makes its value ten times greater ; thus, 100 
denotes five thousand ; 1000, fifty thousand. The number is doubled by 
prefixing to I as many C's as there are 0's after it ; thus, CIO, a thousand ; 
CCI00, ten thousand ; CCCI000, a hundred thousand. Any higher than 
this, according to Pliny, was expressed by repetition ; thus, CCCI000, 
CCCI000, two hundred thousand. 

Thousands are sometimes expressed by a line drawn over the numeral 
letters ; thus, III denotes three thousand ; X, ten thousand, etc. 

II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

206, — The Ordinal Numerals are formed from the cardinal. 
They all end in us, and are declined like bonus ; as, primus, first ; secundus, 
second ; etc. (See the following table.) 

in. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 

20tf. — Distributive Numerals are all plural, and declined like 
the plural of bonus ; but usually have um instead of drum in the genitive ; 
as, singuli, #?, a ; etc. 

The following table contains the ordinal and distributive numbers, and 
the corresponding numeral adverbs : 

Ordinal. Distributive. 

Primus, first, Singuli, one by one. 

Secundus, second, Blnl, two apiece, 
Term, or trim, etc. 
QuaternI, 
Qulni, 
SenI, 
SeptenI, 
OctonI, 
Noveni, 
DenI, 
TJndem, 



Tertius, third, 
Quartus, etc., 
Quintus, 
6. Sextus, 
*1. Septimus, 

8. Octavus, 

9. Nonus, 

10. Decimus, 

11. Undecimus, 

12. Duodecimus, 



Duodenl, 



Numeral Adverbs. 
Semel, once. 
Bis, twice. 
Ter, thrice. 
Quater, four times. 
Quinquies, or -ens. 
Sexies, or sexiens. 
Sep ties. 
Octies. 
Novies. 
Decies. 
Undecies. 
Duodecies. 



208, 209] 



CARDINAL NUMBERS. 



61 



Ordinal. 

13. Tertius decimus, 

14. Quartus decimus, 

15. Quintus decimus, 

16. Sextus decimus, 

17. Septimus decimus, 

18. Duodevicesimus, 

19. Unde vicesimus, 

20. Vicesimus, or ) 

vigesimus, ) 

21. Vicesimus primus, 

22. Vicesimus se- ) 

cundus, ) 

30. Tricesimus, or ) 
trigesimus, ) 
40. Quadragesimus, 
50. Quinquagesimus, 
60. Sexagesiraus, 
70. Septuagesimus, 
80. Octogesimus, 
90. Nonagesimus, 
100. Centesimus, 
200. Ducentesimus, 
300. Trecentesimus, 

400. Quadringentesi- ) 
mus, J 

500. Quingentesimus, 

600. Sexcentesimus, 

700. Septingentesimus, 

800. Octingentesimus, 

900. Nongentesimus, 

1000. Millesimus, 

2000. Bis millesimus, etc. 



Distributive. 
Term deni, 

QuaternI deni, 

Quini deni, 
Sen! deni, 
Septeni deni, 
Duodevlceni, 
Undeviceni, 

Viceni, 

Viceni singuli, 

Viceni bini, 

Triceni, 

Quadrageni, 

Quinquageni, 

Sexageni, 

Septuageni, 

Octogeni, 

Nonageni, 

Centeni, 

Duceni, 

Treceni, 

Quadringeni, 

Quingeni, 

Sexceni, 

Septingeni, 

Octingeni, 

Nongeni, 

Singula millia, 



Numeral Adverbs. 
Terdecies, or tredecies. 
Quaterdecies, or qua- 

tuor decies. 
Quindecies. 
Sedecies. 
Septies decies. 
Duodevicies. 
Undevlcies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies. 

Bis et vicies, etc. 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 

Quinquagies. 

Sexagies. 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies. 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 

Trecenties. 

Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Nongenties. 

Millies. 

Bis millies, etc. 



Bma millia, etc., 

20 8 • — Instead of prlmw, prior is used, if only two are spoken of. 
Alter is often used for secundus. 

Twenty-first, thirty-first, etc., are often expressed by unus et vicesimus, 
unus et tricesimus, etc. ; and twenty-second, etc., by duo, or alter et vicesi- 
mus, in which duo is indeclinable. In the other compound numbers, the 
larger precedes without et, or the smaller with et ; as, vicesimus quartus, or 
quartus et vicesimus. 

209. — Distributives are used in a variety of ways. 1st. Often in 
multiplication, with adverbial numerals ; as, bis bina, twice two, i. e. four; 



62 MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. [210-212 

bis sends, twice six, i. e. twelve ; ter novtnae virgines, thrice nine maidens. 
2d. Instead of cardinals, with words which have no singular (Pluralia tan- 
turn, 1*78) ; as, blni codicilll, two writings ; or with nouns in the plural hav- 
ing the meaning of a singular, but still different from the meaning of the 
same word in the singular number (179) ; as, blna castra, blnae aedes, blnae 
literae ; two camps, two houses, two epistles. Duo, duae, with these nouns, 
would mean two forts or castles ; two temples ; two letters of the alphabet. 
In this case, unl and trlnl are used for singull and term. 3d. Birii is used 
for duo, to denote things which exist in pairs ; as, blni scyphl, a pair of 
goblets, belonging to each other. In ordinary language, distributives occur 
only in the plural — among the poets sometimes in the singular in the sense 
of multiplicatives ; as, centena arbor e (=centum arboribus), literally "with 
a tree a hundred fold." 

The singular of some distributives is sometimes used in the sense of a 
multiplicative ; as, blnum corpus, a double body, Lucr. 

The learner should carefully notice the distinction between the cardinal 
and distributive numerals in their ordinary use. Thus, for example, Duo 
consules viginti naves habebant, means, " the two consuls together had twenty 
ships," i. e. twenty in all, or ten each ; but Duo consules vicenas naves 
habebant, means, " the two consuls had twenty ships each, 11 or forty in all. 

IV. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. 

210. — Multiplicatives denote how many fold; they all end in 
ex, and are declined ]ikefellx. They are as follows : 

Simplex, single. Quadruplex, fourfold. 

Duplex, double. Quintuplex, fivefold. 

Triplex, threefold. Centuplex, a hundredfold, etc., etc. 

211. — 10. To these classes may be added: 
1st. Proportionals P which denote how many times one thing is greater 
than another ; as, duplus, twice as great. 

2d. Temporals 9 which denote time ; as, blmus, two years old ; biennis, 
of two years' continuance. 

3d. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains; as, 
blnarius, of two parts. 

4th. Interrogatives ; as, quot, how many? quotus, which in numer- 
ical order ? quotenl, how many each ? quoties, how many times ? 

212. — Fractions are expressed by the ordinal adjectives agreeing 
with pars or partes, expressed or understood, as -J- tertiapars, f trls sepiimae. 
But for f and f the Romans said, duae partes, tres partes, and so on, when 
the numerator is one less than the denominator. When the denominator is 
12, the unit being represented by as, the several fractions are expressed by 



213-216] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 63 




213. — Mixed numbers were denoted by the Latin for the frac- 
tional part accompanied by that number of the ordinal series which exceeds 
by one the given whole number. Thus 3£ is quadrans quartus, i. e. the 
fourth is a quarter, implying that the three preceding parts were wholes. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
214:* — Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, 
the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses a quality simply ; as, bonus, good. The 
Comparative expresses a quality in a higher or lower degree in one 
object than in another, or than in several taken together. The Super- 
lative expresses a quality in the highest or lowest degree in one object 
compared with several taken separately; as, gold is heavier* than silver ; it 
is the most precious of the metals. Hence, those adjectives only can be 
compared whose signification admits the distinction of more and less. 

215. — The Superlative is often used to express a very high or a very 
low degree of a quality, without implying comparison ; as, vir doctissimus, 
" a very learned man ; " hortus amoenissimus, " a most delightful garden." 
Thus used, it is called the superlative of eminenee 9 and is com- 
monly translated with the articles, ovan; when comparison is implied, 
the article the must be used. 

The Comparative is always of the third declension, and declined like 
mitior (197). The Superlative is always of the first and second, and de- 
clined like bonus (190). 

RULES OF COMPARISON. 
216.— 1. The comparative is formed from the 
theme (56) of the positive, by adding ior for the mascu- 
line and feminine, and ius for the neuter ; as, 

Positive. Theme. Comparative. 

Mane. Fern. Neut. 

Dtirus, AanZ, dur- durior', durior, during, harder. 

Brevis, short, brev- brevior, brevier, brevius, shorter. 

Audax, bold, audac- audacior, audacior, audacius, bolder. 



64 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



[217-219 



217.— 2. The superlative is formed from the theme 
of the positive, by adding issimus, a, urn : in the older 
language, issumus / as, 

Positive. Theme. Superlative. 

Durus, hard, dur- durissimws, a, um, 

Brevis, short, brev- 



brevissiinns, a, ion, 



shortest. 



Audax, Wd, audac- audacissiimis, a, um, fo&tetf. 

218.— Mcc. If the positive end in er (stem in to- or 
r*-) f the superlative is formed by adding rimus, a, um, 
to the nominative masculine ; as, 

Positive. Superlative. 

Pulcer, fair j pulcerrimns, a, um. 

Pauper, poor, pauperrimus, a, um. 

So vetus (vetes-) old has veterrimus, and maturus, ripe, sometimes ma- 
turrimus, especially in the adverb, maturrime. 
Hence these adjectives are compared thus : 



Durus, 


durior, 


diirissimus ; 


Hard, 


harder, 


hardest 


Brevis, 


brevior, 


brevissimus ; 


Short, 


shorter, 


shortest. 


Audax, 


audacior, 


audacissimus ; 


Bold, 


bolder, 


boldest. 


Pulcer, 


pulcrior, 


pulcerrimus ; 


Fair, 


fairer, 


fairest. 


Pauper, 


pauperior, 


pauperrimus ; 


Poor, 


poorer, 


poorest. . 



In the same manner compare : 

Altus, high. Firmus, strong. Liber, free (libero-). 

Capax, capacious (capac-). Fortis, brave. Piger, slow (pigro-). 

CrebeY,frequent (crebro-). Gravis, heavy. Prudens, prudent. 

Dignus, worthy. Integer, entire (integro-). Sapiens, wise. 

Doctus, learned. Lentus, slow. Vehemens, vehement, 

Felix, happy (felic-). Levis, light. Velox, swift (veloc-). 



219. 


IRREGULAR 


AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISONS. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. - 








Bonus, 


melior, 


optimus ; 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Magnus, 


major, 


maximus ; 


Great, 


greater, 


greatest. 


Malus, 


pejor, 


pessimus ; 


Bad, 


worse, 


worst. 


Multus, 


plus, n. 


phirimus ; 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Parvus, 


minor, 


minimus ; 


Little, 


less, 


least. 



Obs. 
lar, and 



Dives, rich, divitior (ditior), divitissimus (ditissimus). 
Nequam (indecl), worthless, nequior, nequissimus. 
Frugi (indecl.), frugal, frugalior, frugalissimus. 

Plus has only the neuter in the singular. In the plural, it is regu- 
is declined (197). 



220-222] COMPAEISOK OP adjectives. 



65 



220* — The following six adjectives form the superlative in limus ; 

Facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. 

Difficilis, difficult, difficilior, difficillimus. 

Similis, like, similior, simillimus. 

Dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. 

Gracilis, lean, gracilior, gracillimus. 

Humilis, low, humilior, humillimus. 

From imbecillis, weak, is rarely formed a superlative, imbecUlimus ; but 
the regular form is much more common, from imbecillus. 

221. — Some compounds in dicus, ficus, and volus, form the com- 
parative in eniior, and the superlative in entissimus, as if from participles 
in ens (ent-). 

beneficentior, 

benevolentior, 

maledicentior, 

mlrificentior, 

But of mirificus the regular superlative is also found. 
So egenus, needy, and providus, prudent, take for their degrees those 
of the participles egens (egent-) and providens (provident-). 

222, — Some adjectives have either no positive form at all, or have, 
representing the positive, a corresponding preposition or adverb, or an 
adjective used in some peculiar connection or meaning. The superlative has 
an irregular and sometimes a double form. 



Beneficus, beneficent, 
Benevolus, benevolent, 
Maledicus, railing, 
Mirificus, wonderful, 



beneficentissimus. 
benevolentissimus. 
maledicentissimus. 
mirificentissimus. 



citra, 


prep. 


citerior, 


on this side, 


citimus. 


extra, 1 


prep. 


exterior, 


outer, 


extremus (rarely extimus). 


infra, 2 


prep. 


inferior, 


lower, 


infimus, or Imus. 


intra, 


prep. 


interior, 


inner, 


intimus. 


prcpe, 3 


prep. 


propior, 


nearer, 


proximus. 


post, 4 


prep. 


posterior, 


hinder, 


postremus. 5 


pro, 


prep. 


prior, 


former, 


primus. 


supra, 6 


prep. 


superior, 


upper, 


supremus, or summus. 


ultra, 


prep. 


ulterior, 


further, 


ultimus. 



1 The adj. extents is used in the plural, in the sense of foreign. 

2 The adj. inferus is used only in connection xvith.mare, mare inferwm, the lower 
sea, the sea southwest of Italy, and in reference to the infernal regions— infers the gods 
below. 

3 Propinqtms is used as a positive adjective of propior, its own comparative, pro- 
pinquior, being rare. 

4 Posterus is used for next in order of time ; posterd node, on the following night. 
In the plural it means posterity. 

5 The superlative postumus is found in good writers only in the sense of last-born, 
after the father's death. 

6 Superus is only used with mare, mare superum, the upper sea, the Adriatic, and 
in reference to the upper regions, of heaven or the world, superl, the gods above. 



60 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. [223-226 

deterior, worse, deterrimus. 

Greek have, ocior, swifter, ocissimus. 

potior, preferable, potissimus. 

223. — The following adjectives want the comparative : 

Inclutus, renowned, inclutissimus. Par, equal, parissimus. 

Invictus, invincible, invictissimus. Persuasus, persuaded, persuasissimus. 
Meritus, deserving, meritissimus. Sacer, sacred, sacerrimus. 

Novus, new, novissimus, Vetus, old, veterrimus. 

Ntiperus, late, nuperrimus. 

224:*— The following adjectives want the superlative : 

Adolescens, young, adolescentior. Proclivis, prone, proclivior. 
Dititurnus, lasting, dhiturnior. Pronus, prone, pronior. 

Ingens, huge, ingentior. Satur, full, saturior. 

Juvenis, young, junior. Senex, old, senior. 

Oplmus, rich, opimior. 

Note. — The superlative of juvenis, or adolescens, is supplied by minimus 
natu, the youngest in birth ; senex takes maximus natu, the oldest. 

Almost all adjectives in His, alis, and bilis, want the superlative ; as, 
civilis, civil, civilior ; regalis, regal, regalior ; flebilis, lamentable, febilior. 

Note.— Some adjectives of these terminations have the superlative also ; 
as, aequcdis, frugalis, hospitalis, liberals, vocalis—affabilis, amabilis, habilis] 
ignobilis, mirabilis, mobilis, mutdbilis, nobilis, slabilis. 

Some adjectives of other terminations also want the superlative • as 
arcanus, ior, secret ; decllvis, tor, bending downwards ; longinquus, far off 
ior ; propinquus, near, ior ; salutaris, healthful, salutarior. 

Anterior, former, and sequior, worse, are found only in the comparative. 

225.— -Many adjectives have no degrees of comparison, because 
they denote invariable qualities. They are such as denote substance, origin, 
possession, or definite time ; as, aureus, golden ; adamantinus, of adamant ; 
Graecus ; Romanus ; peregrlnus, foreign ; paternus, paternal ; aestivus, of 
summer; hlbernus, of winter; vlvus, living, etc. 

226.— Many adjectives which do not denote invariable qualities, are 
yet without comparative and superlative forms. They are— 

1st. Adjectives ending in imus, Inus, orus, and most adjectives in tvus ; 
as, legitimus, matutinus, canorus, fugiiivus : also adjectives in us after a 
vowel ; as, dubius, idoneus, arduus, etc. ; except adjectives in quus, in 
which, however, the first u does not form a syllable (5) ; and sometimes 
assiduus, egregius, pius, strenuus, and vacuus, which are sometimes reg- 
ularly compared. ° 

2d. Compound adjectives, one of whose component parts is a noun or a 
verb ; as, versicolor, pestifer, degener, magnanimus, conso7ius, etc., and such 



227-230] the pronoun. 67 

as have the derivative terminations icus, idics, ulus, alls, ilis, bundus ; as, 
modicus, trepidus, gurrulus, mortdlis, hostilis, furibundus, etc. 

3d. Diminutives, which in themselves imply a sort of comparison ; as, 
tenellus, somewhat tender ; majusculus, somewhat big. 

4th. Many adjectives which cannot be classed under distinct heads ; as, 
alhus, white ; almus, gracious ; lacer, torn ; lassus, tired ; memor, mindful ; 
minis, wonderful ; navus, active ; praecox, early ripe ; rudis, rude ; sospes, 
safe ; and many others noted in the dictionaries. 

22*7* — In most, or in all adjectives of these classes, and sometimes in 
others also, the comparative is made by prefixing magis, more ; and the 
superlative by prefixing valde or maxims, most, to the positive ; as, arduus, 
high ; magis arduus, higher ; valde, or maxime arduus, highest, or very 
high. Sallust has maxime tutOs. 

228, — Comparison is sometimes made by means of 'the prepositions 
prae, ante, praeter, or supra, with the positive ; as, Prae nobis bedtics, hap- 
pier .than we, Cic. ; Ante alias insignis, most distinguished, Liv. A high 
degree of quality without comparison is expressed by prefixing valde, im- 
primis, apprime, admodum, etc., or by the preposition per or prae prefixed 
in composition ; as, perdifflcilis, very difficult ; praecldrus, very illustrious. 

229. — The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing ctiam, 
even, yet, and of both comparative and superlative, by prefixing longe or 
multo, far, much ; as, multo melior, much better ; longe nobilissimus, far the 
noblest. Quam with the superlative renders it emphatic ; as, quam doctis- 
vimus, extremely learned ; quam celerrime, as speedily as possible (1003). 



THE PROITOUK 
230.— A Peonoujst is a word used instead of a 



noun. 



There are eight classes of pronouns : 

1. Personal pronouns: ego, I; tu, thou. 

2. Meflective pronouns : se, himself. 

3. Possessive pronouns : mens, my ; noster, our. 

4. Demonstrative pronouns : ille, that ; hie, this. 

5. Distinctive pronouns : is, that one (named). 

6. Melative pronouns : qui, who. 

7. Interrogative pronouns : quis, who ? 

8. Indefinite pronouns : aliquis, some one. 



68 



PRONOUNS. 



[231, 232 



The last six classes are sometimes called adjective pro- 
nouns, since they are often used in agreement with nouns ; 
and the first two are called substantive pronouns. 

In all speech three things are implied: the person speak- 
ing, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken 
of. ^ These are called, in Grammar, the First, Second, and 
Third persons; and the pronouns representing them are 
called Personal Pronouns. 



I. Personal Pronouns. 

231. — The pronoun of the first person is Ego, I; of 
the second, Tu, thou or you. For the third Personal Pro- 
noun the distinctive pronoun Is (243) is usually employed. 



Ego, /, First Person, Masc. or Fern. 



JST. ego, 
G. mei, 
D. mini, 
Ac. me, 

V. 

Ab. me, 



jst. tu, 

G. tul, 
D. tibi, 
Ac. te, 
V. tti, 
Ab. te, 



Singular. 



I. 

of me. 

to me. 

me. 

with, etc., me. 



Plural 
N. nos, 

G. nostrum, or nostri,* 
D. nobis, 
Ac. nos, 

V. 

Ab. nobis, 



we. 

of us. 

to us. 

us. 



Tff, thou, Second Person, Masc. or Fern. 



Singular. 

thou, or you. 

of thee, or of you. 

to thee, or to you. 

thee, or you. 

O thou, or you. 

with, etc., thee, or you. 



Plural 
N. vSs, 

G. vestrum, or vestri, 
-0. vObis, 
Ac. v5s, 
V. v(5s, 



Ab. vobis. 



with, etc., us. 



ye, or you. 

of you. 

to you. 

you. 

O ye, or you. 



with, etc., you. 



II. Meflective Pronouns. 

232.— The oblique cases of the First and Second Per- 
sonal Pronouns are used also as the reflectives of those 
persons. The subject of the sentence is always to be re- 

* Nostrum, vestrum, G. partitive ; nostri, vestri, G. objective (1016, 1017). 



1 233-239] pronouns. 69 

garded as the nominative of a Reflective Pronoun, and 
, this, in the case of sui, determines its number and gender. 

Sui, of himself \ of herself of itself Third Person, 

Masc, Fern., Neut. 
Singular. Plural 



N. 







JV. 





G. sui, 




of himself etc. 


G. sui, 


0/ themselves. 


D. sibi, 




to himself etc. 


D. sibi, 


to themselves. 


Ac. se, 




himself etc. 


Ac. se 


themselves. 


v. — 






V. . ' 





Ab. se, 


with. 


etc., himself \ etc. 


-46. se, 


withy etc., themselves. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

233. — The syllable met may be joined for the sake of emphasis to all 
these forms, except to the genitive plural of ego and tu : egomet, I myself, 
tibimet. However, the nom. tu has tuie, or internet, instead of tumet. 

234. — The ace. and abl. sing, of se are sometimes reduplicated : 

sese ; so tete is sometimes found and rarely meme. 

235. — Instead of vestrum, vestri, vostrum and vostri were used by 
the oldest and best writers. 

III. Possessive Pronouns. 

236. — The Possessive Pronouns denote possession, and 
are derived from the substantive pronouns as follows : 

my, my own, from me. 

thy, thy own, " tu. 

his, her, its, his own, etc., " sui. 
our, our own, " nos. 

your, your own, " vos. 

In form, possessive pronouns are regular adjectives of the first and the 
second declension. Metis, tuus, and suus, are declined like bonus, except 
that meus has ml, seldom meus, in the vocative singular masculine. JVbster 
and vester are declined like dter. 

237.— -The emphatic syllables pte and met are sometimes found ap- 
pended, particularly in the ablative sing. : suapte manu, with his own hand ; 
sudmet fraude, by his own deceit. 

238.— There is, besides, a possessive : cujus, a, urn, whose ? formed 
from the interrogative quis : cujum pecus, whose cattle ? 

IV. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

239. — Demonstrative Pronouns are such as point 
out with precision a person or thing (as if with the finger). 



Meus, 


a, 


um, 


Tuus, 


a, 


am, 


Suus, 


a, 


um, 


Noster, 


tra, 


trum, 


Vester, 


tra, 


trum, 



70 



PRONOUNS. 



[240-242 



They are hic> this ; ille, iste, that. They are declined 
as follows : 

1. Hie, haec, hoc, this ; Plural, these. 
Singular. 



Masc. 
N. hie, 
G. hujus, 
D. huic, 
Ac. hunc, 

V. 

Ab. hoc, 



Masc. 
N. ille, 
G. illius, 
D. illi, 
Ac. ilium, 

V. 

Ab. illo, 



Fern. 

haec, 

hujus, 

hulc, 

hanc, 

hac, 



Neut. 

hoc. 

hujus. 

huic. 

hoc. 

hoc. 



Masc. 
K hi, 
G. horum, 
D. his, 
Ac. hos, 

V. 

Ab. his, 



Plural. 
Fern. 
hae, 
harum, 
his, 
has, 

his, 



2. Ille, illa, illud, that ; Plural, those. 



Singular. 
Fern. 
ilia, 
illius 
illi, 
illam, 



ilia, 



Newt. 
illud. 
illius. 
illi. 
illud. 

illo. 



Masc. 
N. illi, 
G. iilorum, 
D. illis, 
Ac. illos, 
V. - — 
Ab. illis. 



Plural. 
Fern. 
illae, 
illarum, 
illis, 
illas, 

illis, 



Neut. 
haec. 
horum. 
his. 

lUBC. 

his. 



Neut. 

illa. 

iilorum. 

illis. 

illa. 



illis. 



Note. — Virgil has olli as a dative singular, and nominative plural ; and 
Cicero, in an antique formula, has olla and olios, from an ancient form ollus, 
the root of which is found in olim, at yonder time. 

Iste, " that," is declined like ille. 

24:0» — Hie means " this," referring to something near the speaker, or 
just spoken of. Ille, " that," refers to something at a distance, or before 
spoken of; sometimes to what is well known and celebrated, and therefore 
regarded as present ; as, Medea illa, " the well-known Medea ; " Alexander 
ille, " the illustrious Alexander." Iste, " that," refers to something near 
or some way connected with the person spoken to, and opposite to the 
speaker. Accordingly, hie is often called the demonstrative of the first 
person, iste of the second, and ille of the third, 

24:1* — Hie, and some cases of the other demonstratives, are rendered 
emphatic by adding ce ; as, hicce, hujusce, huncce, etc. When ne interro- 
gative is also added, ce is changed into ci ; as, hiccine, hoscine, etc. 

24:2* — From ille and iste with the same particle ce (which is, however,, 
only found in full in the oldest language), are formed the compounds Ulic 
and isthic or istic, used in some of the cases for ille and iste, but with greater 
emphasis. Those parts only are in use which end in c, as follows : 



213] 



] 




PK0N0UNS. 


* 




Istic is thus declined : 




Masc. 
N. istic, 
Ac. istunc, 


Singular. 
Fern. 
istaec, 
istanc, 


Neut. 
istoc, or istuc. 
istoc, or istuc. 


Plural. 
Neut. (rarely Fern.) 

> istaec. 
Ac. S 


Ab. istoc, 


istac, 


istoc. 





71 



Illlc is declined in the same manner. Interrogative forms with ne are 
found : illancine, istlcine, etc. 

V. Distinctive Pronouns. 

243. — The Distinctive Pronouns are is, and its de- 
rivatives, Idem and ipse. They define or distinguish particu- 
lar objects, as those spoken of in the discourse. Is is 
either the correlative and antecedent of qui, so that is qui 
means " the particular person who," or it is used as a mere 
pronoun of reference to a word previously mentioned. 
Idem means " the very he," " the same ; " and ipse, " the 
man himself." 

1. Is, ea, id, that ; Plural, those. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


I em. 


Neul. 


N. is, 


ea, 


id. 


jsr. ii, 


eae, 


ea. 


G. ejus, 


ejus, 


ejus. 


G. eorum, 


earum, 


eorum. 


D. el, 


el, 


el. 


D. iis or eis, 


iis or eis, 


iis or eis. 


Ac. eum, 


eum, 


id. 


Ac. eos, 


eas, 


ea. 


V. — 


— 


— 


V. — 


— 


— 


Ab. eo, 


ea, 


eo. 


Ab. iis or els 


iis or eis, 


iis or els 



2. From is, and the syllable dem, is formed idem, eadem, idem, " the 
same," which is thus declined : 

Singular. 

Fem. Neut. 

eadem, idem, 

ejusdem, ejusdem. 

eidem, eidem. 

eandem, idem. 



Masc. 
N. Idem, 
G. ejusdem, 
D. eidem, 
Ac. eundem, 

V. 

Ab. eodem, 



eadem, 



eodem. 



72 



PRONOUNS* 



[244, 245 



Plural. 
JV. ildem, eaedem, 

G. eorundem, earundem, 

D. eisdem or iisdem, etc., 
Ac. eosdem, easdem, 

F. 

Ab. eisdem or iisdem, etc. 



3. From is, with pse (ispse = ipse), is formed ipse, self, very, which is 
thus declined. The nom. is sometimes ipsus. 



eadem. 
eorundem. 

eadem. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Kent. 


N. ipse, 


ipsa, 


ipsum. 


N. ipsi, 


ipsae, 


ipsa. 


G. ipsius, 


ipsius, 


ipsius. 


G. ipsorum, 


ipsarum, 


ipsorum 


D. ipsT, 


ipsi, 


ipsi. 


D. ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis. 


Ac. ipsum, 


ipsam, 


ipsum. 


Ac. ipsos, 


ipsas, 


ipsa. 


F. 







F. 








Ab. ipso, 


ipsa, 


ipso. 


Ab. ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis. 



24:4:. — In the old language the uncontracted forms of ipse are some- 
times found ; eapse, eampse, eopse, for ipsa, ipsam, ipso (in Plautus). In 
the word r eapse {—re ipsa, in fact) the form eapse was in use at a later 
period. In colloquial Latin such combinations occur as eccum, eccam, eccos, 
etc., for ecce (lo !) eum, earn, eos ; so we have eccillum, or ellum, for ecce 
ilium, or en ilium, behold him ! 



VI. Relative Pronouns. 

24=5. — A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, 
and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it, 
called the antecedent. 

The simple relative qui is thus declined : 

Qui, quae, quod, who, which, that. 



Singular. 




Plural. 




Masc, Fern. Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut 


N. qui, quae, quod. 


N. qui, 


quae, 


quae. 


G. cujus, cujus, cujus. 


G. quorum, 


quarum, 


quorum. 


D. cul, cul, cul. 


D. quibus, 


quibus, 


quibus. 


Ac. quern, quam, quod. 


Ac. quos, 


quas, 


quae. 


F. 


V. 







Ab. quo, qua, quo. 


Ab. quibus, 


quibus, 


quibus. 


Note. — Quis and queis are somet 


imes used in 


the dative and ablativ 


instead of quibus. Quojus and quoi 8 


ire ancient forms for cujus, 


cul. 



216, 247] 



PKONOUNS. 



73 



Cui is sometimes a dissyllable with both vowels short. 
Uter, which of two, is sometimes used with the force of a relative. 
Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular in all genders. To 
all forms of the ablative, cum is frequently annexed; as, quocum, qui- 



buscum, etc. 



VII. Interrogative Pronouns. 

246. — Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking 
questions, to which some answer other than " yes " or 
"no" is expected. These may be called "word-ques- 
tions;" as, quis fecit? "who did it?" answer (not "yes" 
or " no," but) " Cassar." 

The interrogatives are : 
Quisnam? ) Cujus? whose? 

Quis ? S ' Cujas ? of wlwt country ? 

i which? 



... ? what? 
Quinam ? ) 

The simple interrogative quis is thus declined : 

Quis, quae, quod, or quid ? Who, which, what ? 





Singular. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. quis, or qui, 


quae, 


quid, or quod. 


G. cujus, 


cujus, 


cujus. 


D. cm, 


cui, 


cui. 


Ac. quern, 


quam, 


quod. 


V. 

Ab. quo, 






qua, 


quo. 




Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. qui, 


quae, 


quae. 


6r. quorum, 


quarum, 


quorum. 


I), quibus, 


quibus, 


quibus. 


Ac. quos, 


quas, 


quae. 


V. 







Ab. quibus, 



quibus. 



quibus, 

Quis and quern sometimes are used in reference to females in early 
Latin. As for the relative, quis (quels), quojus, quoi, qui, are found in early 
Latin for quibus, ciijus, cui, quo. Qui is often used in the sense of " how ? " 

Of the compound forms given above, only the quis or qui is declined. 

24:7 • — Cujus, a, um ? " whose? " used instead of the genitive of quis, 
is defective. The parts in use are as follows : 
4 



n 



PEONOUNS. 



[248-252 



3fasc. 
JV. cujus, 
Ac. cujum, 
Ah. 



Singular. 
Fein. 
cuja, 
cujam, 
cuja, 



Plural. 



Neut. 
cujum. 



Md8C. 

K cuji, 
Ac. 



Fern. 

cujae. 

cujas. 



248.—Ctijds (cujai{i-)), " of what country ? " is declined like an adjec- 
tive of one termination ; so also nostras, " of our country? " and vestras, " of 
your country.' 

VIII. Indefinite Pronouns. 

249* — Indefinite Pronouns are such as do not refer 
to any distinct person or thing, and answer to the English 
" some one," " any one," " a man," etc. 

The simple indefinite is quis, or qui, which is declined 
like the relative pronoun, except in these cases : 

Singular. Plural. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. quis (qui), qua (quae), quid (quod). JSf. qui, quae, qua (quae). 

A. quern, quam, quid (quod). A. qu5s, quas, qua (quae). 

The forms in parentheses are used adjectively, i. e., in connection with 
nouns, the others substantively. But quis is used in both ways. 

250. — This indefinite pronoun is always enclitic ; i. e., it never stands 
first in a sentence, but is always attached to a previous word ; very often to 
one of the forms of the relative pronoun, or to si, ne, nisi, num, or the in- 
separable prefixes ec- and ali^. 

251* — The compound indefinite pronouns are : 

Aliquis, aliqua, aliquid (aliquod), some one. 

Quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (quodpiam), some one. 

Quldam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one. 

Quisquam, quidquam or quicquam, any one at all. 

Quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque), each one. 

Qulvis, quaevis, quidvis (quod vis), any one you please. 

Quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any one youplease. 
The forms given in parentheses are used as adjectives. 

These are declined in the same way as the simple indefinite or relative 
pronoun ; but aliquis has aliqua for aliquae in the fern. sing, and neut. 
plur. ; whereas qua is not used in the cases of the other compound indefi- 
nites. Also aliqui is sometimes used adjectively. 

252* — Quisquam has no feminine, but in colloquial Latin the mascu- 
line forms are of the common gender, and its plural is supplied by vllus. 
Quldam generally changes m to n before d: quendam for quemdam. 



253-257] PEONOUNS. 75 

Indefinite Relatives* 

253. — There are two compound relative pronouns, called indefinite 
relatives : quicunque, and quisquis, whosoever. Quicunque is declined 
like the simple relative, but its parts are sometimes separated by one or 
more words : quod judicium cunque, for quod cu?ique judicium, whatever 
judgment. (Tmesis, 15.) 

254. — Quisquis has only the following forms in use : 
Sing. N. quisquis, quidquid or quicquid, 

A. quemquem (rare), quidquid or quicquid, 

Ab. quoquo, quaqua (late), quoquo. 

Plur. N. quiqui (rare), 

JD. quibusquibus (rare). 

An old genitive cuicui, for cujuscujus, occurs in the word cuiculmodi, 
of whatever kind. 

255* — In connection with ec- and num, quis forms an interrogative 
indefinite: ecquis, numquis? is there any one who? These are sometimes 
strengthened by the addition of the syllable nam : ecquisnam ? They are 
declined like the simple indefinite, but qua is often used for quae in the 
fern. sing, and neut. plur. 

236* — Nemo (nemon-), no one, is used in the singular, but not gener- 
ally in the genitive or ablative, for which nullius, nullo, are used. 

Correlative Pronominal Adjectives, 

237* — Correlative pronouns are those whose forms express 
aotions mutually opposed. They may be arranged thus : 

Demonstrative. EiterwgaUve. Indefinite, Indefinite Relative. 

1.) talis, of such kind, qualis, of which qualiscunque, qualislibet, 

(what?) kind. of whatever kind, of any kind you 

please. 

2.) tantus, so great, quantus (so #mtf), quantuscunque ? aliquantus, of 
as, how great ? how great soever, some consider- 
able size. 

3.) tot, so many. quot (so many), quotcunque, or aliquot, a cer- 
as, how many ? quotquot, how tain number, 

many soever. some. 

The words in (3) are undeclined, and are, of course, plur alia tantum 
178). 



76 the verb. [258-260 



THE TEEB. 

258. — A Veeb is a word used to express the 
act, being, or state, of its subject. 

The use of the verb, in simple propositions, is to affirm. 
That of which it affirms, is called its subject, and, if a 
noun or pronoun, it is usually in the nominative case. But 
when the verb is in the infinitive, its subject is put in the 
accusative. 

259* — Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive. 

A Transitive Verb expresses an act done by one 
person or thing to another. It has two forms, called the 
Active and the JPassive voice. 

An Intransitive Verb expresses being, or a state 
of being, or action confined to the actor. It is commonly 
without the passive form. 

Obs. 1. The verbs that express being simply, in Latin, are sum, f to, ex- 
kto, signifying, in general, "to be," or "exist." The state of being ex- 
pressed by intransitive verbs may be a state of rest, as dormio, " I sleep ; " 
or of motion, as cado, " I fall ; " or of action, as curro, " I run." 

^ Obs. 2. The action expressed by an intransitive verb does not, like the 
action expressed by a transitive verb, pass over from the agent or actor to 
an object. It has no immediate relation to any thing beyond its subject, 
which it represents in a certain state or condition, and nothing more ; and 
hence they may always be distinguished thus : — A transitive verb always 
requires an object to complete the sense ; as, amo te, " I love thee ; " the 
intransitive verb does not, but the sense is complete without such an ob- 
ject ; as, sedeo, " I sit ; " curro, " I run." 

Obs. 3. Many verbs considered intransitive in Latin, are translated by 
verbs considered transitive in English; as, placeo, " I please ; " obedio "I 
obey ; " credo, " I believe ; " etc. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
260— To the inflection of Verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 



261-263] THE VERB. 77 

1. The Voices, in Latin, are two, Active and Passive. 

2. The Woods are four, the Indicative, Subjunctive, 
Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses are six, the Present (present imperfect) ; 
.Imperfect (past imperfect) ; Future, Perfect (present per- 
fect) ; Pluperfect (past perfect) ; and Future Perfect. 

The names in italics are the usual ones ; those in parentheses are more 
i fully descriptive of the use of the tenses. 

4. The Numbers are two, Singular and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three, First, Second, and Third. 
Besides the Moods, to the Verb belong Participles, 

Gerunds, and Supines. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the arrangement of its 

moods, tenses, etc., according to a certain order. Of these, 

in Latin, there are four, called the First, Second, Third, 

and Fourth Conjugations. 

Obs. A few verbs in Latin are of more than one conjugation, and a few 
have some of their parts belonging to one conjugation, and others to 
another. 

VOICE. 

261.— Voice is a particular form of the verb 
which, shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb, in Latin, has two voices, 
called the Active and the Passive. 

262. — l. The Active Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acting on some object; as, amo te, "I love 
thee." 

2. The Passive Voice represents the subject of the 
verb as acted upon ; as, amatur, " he is loved." 

263. — If S be taken to represent the subject, and O the object, and an 

arrow ( -^>) to represent the action of the verb, the active and 

passive voices will stand thus : 

Active. S > O. (Brutus killed Caesar.) 

JPassive. [OS] <; (Caesar was killed.) 



•8 THE VERB. [264 

It thus appears that the subject of a passive verb is always the 
object of an active one. 

Intransitive verbs, which have no proper passive, are also said to 
be m the active voice. Their meaning may be thus shown— 
Active Intransitive S — > 

MOODS. 
264— Mood is the mode or manner of express- 
ing the signification of the verb. 

The moods, in Latin, are four, namely, the 
Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

Of these, the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite 
moods, because in them the action is limited by a termination to a partic- 
ular subject. 

I. The Indicative Mood asserts the action or state 
expressed by the verb, simply as a fact, and generally in 
an independent clause; as, scribo, "I write;" tempusfugit, 
"time flies;" or inquires about a fact, as, nonne scribo 
" do I not write ? " 

II. The Subjunctive Mood asserts the action or 
state expressed by the Verb, not as a fact, but only as a 
conception formed by the mind. It is generally used in 
dependent clauses in various ways, and is often rendered 
in English by "may," "can," "might," "should," etc., as, 
edimus ut vlvamus, " we eat that we may live." 

III. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, scribe, "write thou;" ifo, "let 
him go." 

IV. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any distinction 
of person or number; as, scrlbere, "to write;" scripsisse, 

to have written ; " scrlbl, " to be written." 
The infinitive mood is really the form in which a verb becomes a 
noun. It is of the neuter gender, undeclined, and is used in the nomina- 
tive or the accusative case. 



265-267] tenses. 79 

265.— Besides these moods the Latin verb has : 

The Gerund, which is a verbal noun of the second declension, used in 
the singular, but not in the nominative case. It supplies the wanting cases 
of the Infinitive, and answers generally to the English verbal noun in ing: 
legendl causa, for the sake of reading ; ad arandum natus, born for ploughing. 

The Supine, which is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, used 
only in the accusative and ablative singular : spectaium veniunt, they come to 
see; optimum factu, best to be done. 

The Participles, which are verbal adjectives, and express the action 
or state described by the verb as a property belonging to a person or thmg ; 
Cato morieus, Cato (when) dying ; urbs capta, the crty being taken ; Jhdo 
moritura, Dido about to die. 

TENSES. 
2£0 # _Tenses are certain forms of the verb 
which serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and 
Future ; and an action may be represented either as in- 
complete and continuing, or as completed, at the time spoken 
of. This gives rise to six tenses, which are expressed in 
Latin by distinct forms of the verb; thus, we have in the 
indicative mood : . 

I. Three tenses for incomplete action ; i. e., imperfect tenses. 

(1.) Present {present imperfect) : scrlbo, I write, or I am writing. 

(2.) Imperfect {past imperfect) : scribebam, I was writing. 

(3 ) Future : scrlbam, I shall write. 

II. Three tenses for completed action; i. e., perfect tenses. 
(1.) Perfect {present perfect) : scripsl, I have written. 
(2.) Pluperfect (past perfect) : scripseram, I had written. 
(3.) Future perfect : scripsero, I shall have written. 

267,—The tense called Terfect (present perfect), which is strictly 
to be translated by the English tense with "have" {I have written), often 
answers to our (so called) imperfect tense {I wrote), and is then called the 
aorist (or the perfect indefinite, or the historical perfect). (See An. and 
Pr. Gr., 415-418.) 

The name imperfect has been omitted with the Future tense, because 
it is usually employed as a simple future, without reference to duration. 



80 CONJUGATION OF REGULAE VERBS. [268-272 

268. — The subjunctive mood has no future tense. The imper- 
ative has a present and future tense. The infinitive has three tenses, 
describing the action as unfinished (imperfect), or as finished (perfect), or 
as intended or destined (future). These are commonly called the present, 
perfect, and future infinitive. 

269.— -The participles are: 
In the active voice, the present (imperfect), and the future. 
In the passive voice, the perfect. 

But besides these, the gerundive is sometimes called a future parti- 
ciple passive. It is, however, both in form and use much more nearly allied 
to the imperfect participle active. 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

270. — 1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the singular 
and the plural, corresponding to the singular and the plural of nouns and 
pronouns. 

2. In each number, the verb has three persons, called first, second^ 
and third. The first asserts of the person speaking : the second, of the 
person spoken to ; and the third, of the person or thing spoken of. In the 
imperative, there is no first person. 

CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

27 1, — Nearly all Latin verbs are called Regular ; i. e., 
they form their moods and tenses according to one or other 
of j 'out models or types, which are called coiljuga- 
ttOflS* These conjugations are usually distinguished 
from each other by the ending of the present (imperfect) 
infinitive. Thus : 

First Conj. Second Conj. Fourth Conj. Third Conj. 

Infin. ends in are, ere, Ire, ere. 

272. — The true account of the matter, however, is that all Latin verbs 
have stems which end in a, e, i, or in a consonant or u. We have 
then for the 

First Cory. Second Conj. Fourth Conj. Third Conj. 

stems in a, e, i, a consonant or u. 

The ending of the present (imperfect) infinitive being re, this is added 
directly to the stem-vowels of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, 
making these vowels long, are, ere, ire, but is attached to stems of the 



273-275] conjugations. 81 

third conjugation by the help of a connecting vowel, e, which is always 
short, thus making the ending ere. 

273. — The theory by which the long vowels are accounted for, is that 
originally the consonant conjugation was the only one; and that when the 
vowel-verbs came into use, the person-endings with connecting vowels were 
attached to them, and afterwards the connecting vowels united with the 
vowels of the stems. Accordingly, the First, Second, and Fourth Conjuga- 
tions are sometimes called contracted conjugations. 

274. — The Complete Conjugation of Latin verbs 
requires that not only the stem, as given above (which may- 
be called the frst stem), should be known, but also tw r o 
modified forms of this, which may be called respectively 
the second and the third stem. 

The First Stem is that from which all the imperfect 
tenses are made. 

The Second Stem is that from which the perfect tenses 
active are made. 

The Third Stem is that with which the perfect tenses 
passive are made. 

It is only in the tenses made from the first stem (imperfect tenses) 
that there is any distinction between the various conjugations. The 
perfect tenses of all verbs are made alike from the second and third stems 
respectively. 

275. — As these three forms of the stem are involved 
in certain forms of the verb, and may be ascertained from 
them, those forms are commonly called the principal 
parts of the verb. These are (from the verb amo, to love) : 

1. The Present Infinitive, amare, giving ama-, 
1st stem. 

2. The Perfect Indicative^ amav\ giving amav-, 
2d stem. 

3. The Supine, amtitum, giving amato-, Sd stem. 
The 3d stem is here given as ending in o, instead of u, since the use of 

it as the perfect participle passive (and therefore as an adjective of the 2d 
and 1st declensions) is much more frequent than its use as a supine (i. e., 
a noun of the 4th declension). 
4* 



82 



CONJUGATIONS. 



[276, 277 



2f6—To these three principal parts, the present (pres. 
imperfect) is generally prefixed, and we then have as 
examples of the four conjugations- 
conjugation 1st {amo, to love). 
Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, 

(1. ama-) (2. amav-) (3. amato-). 

Conjugation 2d {moneo, to advise). 
Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, 

(1. mone-) (2. monu-) (3. monito-). 

Conjugation Wi {audio >, to hear). 
Audio, audlre, audivl, auditum, 

(1. audi-) (2. audiv-) (3. audlto-). 

Conjugation Bd {rego, to rule). 
Rego, regere, rexi, rectum, 

(1. reg-) (2. rex-) (3. recto-). 

Observe that 1, 2, 3, are placed before the stems of the verb, meaning 
respectively first stem, second stem, third stem ; and that the fourth conju- 
gation is placed before the third, in order that the three vowel conjugations 
may appear together. 

THE IRREGULAR VERB sum. 

27 7 • — The irregular verb swm 9 " I am " (stems, 1. es-, 
2. fii-), is used as an auxiliary verb in forming the 
perfect tenses of the passive voice, and therefore must be 
committed to memory first. 



Principal Parts. 

Pres. ind. Pres. inf. Perf. ind. 

sum esse fui 

(1. es-) (2. fu-) 



Supine. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am {Present Imperfect). 

1. Ego Sum, lam, 

2. Tu Es, Thou art, or you are, 

3. llle Est, He is; 
Plur. 1. Nos Sumus, We are, 

2. Vos Estis, Ye, or you are, 

3. llll Sunt, They are. 



277] 



THE VERB SUM. 



83 



Imperfect, was {Fast Imperfect). 

Sing. 1. Eram, I was, 

2. Eras, TJwu wast, or you were, 

3. Erat, He was ; 
Plur. 1. Eramus, We were, 

2. Eratis, 



3. Erant, 



Ye, or you were, 
Tliey were. 



Sing. 1. Ero, 

2. Eris, 

3. Erit, 

Plur. 1. Erimus, 

2. Eritis, 

3. Erunt, 



FvjtUVe 9 shall, or w£# 6e. 

I shall, or wiUbe, 
Thou shall, or wt'ft 60, 
iife s&aft, or will be ; 

We s/ia#, or will be, 
You shall, or will be, 
They shall or will be. 



Perfect {Present Perfect), have been ; aorist, was. 



Sing. 1. Fui, 

2. Fuisti, 

3. Fuit, 

Plur. 1. Fuimus, 

2. Fuistis, 

3. Fuerunt, or fu6re, 



I have been, or I was, 

Thou hast been, or thou wast, 

He has been, or he was ; 

We have been, or we were, 
Ye have been, or ye were, 
They have been, or they were. 



Pluperfect, had been {Past Perfect). 

Sing. 1. Fueram, I had been, 

2. Fueras, Thou hadst been, 

3. Fuerat, He had been ; 

Plur. 1. Fueramus, We had been, 

2. Fueratis, Ye had been, 

3. Fuerant, They had been. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have been. 

Sing. 1. Fuero, I shall, or will have been, 

2. Fueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have been, 

3. Fuerit, He shall, or will have been ; 

Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We shall, or will have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been, 

3. Fuerint, They shall, or will have been. 



84 THE VERB SUM. [277 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can be {Present Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Sim, I may, or can be, 

2. Sis, Thou mayst, or canst be, 

3. Sit, He may, or can be ; 

Plur. 1. Simus r We may, or can be, 

2. Sitis, Ye may, or can be, 

3. Sint, They may, or can be. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be (Past Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Essem, I might, etc., fo, 

2. Esses, Thou mightst, etc., fo, 

3. Esset, He might, etc., fo; 
Plur. 1. Essemus, PTe mt#7tf, etc., be, 

2. Essetis, F<? might, etc., fo, 

3. Essent, They might, etc., fo. 

Perfect, may have been (Present Perfect). 
Sing. 1. Fuerim, I may have been, 

2. Fueris, Thou mayst have been, 

3. Fuerit, He may have been ; 

Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We may have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye may have been, 

3. Fuerint, They may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been (Past Perfect). 
Sing. 1. Fuissem, I might, etc., have been, 

2. Fuisses, Thou mightst, etc., have been, 

3. Fuisset, He might, etc., have been; 

Plur. 1. Fuissemus, We might, etc., have been, 

2. Fuissetis, Ye might, etc., have been, 

3. Fuissent, They might, etc., have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural 

Pres. 2. Es, be thou, Este, be ye. 

Fut. 2. Esto, thou shalt be, Estate, ye shall be, 

3. Esto, he shall be, Sunto, they shall be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. (Imperf.) Esse, To be, 

Perf. Fuisse, To have been. 

Fut. Esse futurus, a, urn, To be about to be. 



278-280] EXERCISES ON the verb sum. 



85 







PARTICIPLE. 






Future. 


Futurus, a, um, About to be. 
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 




Pres. 


Indicative. 
sum, 


Sudjtmctive. 
sim, 


Imperative. 
es, 


Infinitive. 
esse, 


Participle. 


Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 
F. Perf. 


eram, 

fui, 

fueram, 

ero, 

fuero. 


essem, 
fuerim, 
fuissem, 


esto, 


fuisse, 

esse futurus, 


futurus. 



278. — Obs. 1. The Future Infinitive is made by joining the 
Future Participle with the Infinitive, esse. The Participle so used must 
agree in case, gender, and number with the subject, being what is called 
the complement (666) of esse. The same remark applies to all the 
other compound tenses in which a participle is connected with parts of the 
verb sum. 

279. — Obs. 2. The compounds of sum ; namely, adsum, absum, 
desum, insum, intersum, obsum, praesum, subsum, supersum, are conjugated 
like the simple verb ; but insum, and subsum, want the perfect, and the 
tenses formed from it. Prosum, and possum from potis and sum, are 
irregular, and are given 411, 412. 

Obs. 3. Instead of Essem, forem is sometimes used, but not in the 1st 
and 2d persons plural (445); and also fore, instead of futurus esse. 

280. — Obs. 4. The participle ens is not in use, but appears in three 
compounds, absens, praesens, and potens. In two of these the letter s is 
probably a remnant of the original stem es- (i. e. ab-es-ens, prae~es-ens). 
Also, the supine and gerund are wanting. 

Obs. 5. Other ancient forms are : stem, sies, siet, stent, and fuam, 
fuas, fuat, fuant, for sim, sis, sit, sint. 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB SUM. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it ; give the tense, mood, 
person, number, and translation of the following words, always observing the 
same order ; thus : Sum, verb intransitive, irregular, found in the present 
indicative, active, first person singular, "lam; " — Fuit, verb intransitive, 
irregular, found in the present perfect indicative, active, third person sin- 
gular, " he has been ; " aorist, " he was." * 

* In these and all following exercises on the verb, it will be of great importance, in 
order to form habits of accuracy, and as a preparation for future exercises in translating 
and parsing, to require the pupil, in this manner, to state every thing belonging to a 
verb, in the order here indicated, or in any other the teacher may direct, always, how- 
ever, observing the same ; and also, for the saving of time and unnecessary labor, to 
state them in" the fewest words possible, and without waiting to have every word 
drawn from him by questions. Let it be observed, also, that the term active here 
has no reference to the class of the verb, but only to its form, being that of the active 
voice. 



88 CONJUGATIONS. [281 

Est, erat, erit, fueram, fuerim, fuero, sit, esset, fuistl, fuiinus, fuerunt, 
fuSre, erunt, sint, sumus, erant, essent, fuissent, esse, esto, sunto, fuisse, es, 
eras, fueras, fuistis, futurus esse, futurus, sint, etc., ad libitum, 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the part 
of the verb used; thus: "I will be," ero, in the future indicative, active, 
first person singular. 

We are, they were, you have been, thou hast been, they will be, be may 
be, I shall have been, to be, be thou, let them be, about to be, to be about 
to be, we should be, we should have been, I may have been, they will have 
been, they may have been, they have been, you were, thou wast, he is, 
they are, etc., ad libitum. 

3. The verb sum forms the copula connecting the subject and the pred- 
icate in a simple proposition, the predicate of which is not a verb. Thus 
in the proposition: "Man is mortal," man is the subject; mortal, the pre- 
dicate ; and is, the copula. With the verb sum as a copula in different 
tenses, and the exercises (p. 56), form simple sentences; thus, casa est 
(erat, fuit, etc.) parva, "the cottage is (was, has been, etc.) small;" plural, 
casae sunt parvae, "the cottages are small." 

In this way, translate into English the following propositions (see p. 56). 
Poeta erat clarus, — opus magnum erit, — nubSs densae sunt, — aestas 
calida fuit, — urbs antiqua fuit, — etc. 

Translate the following English sentences into Latin: 
Life is short, — the day was clear, — the boys are docile, — the shepherd 
will be faithful, — the apples are sweet, — etc. 

THE FOUK KEGULAR COSTJUG ATIOSTS. 
The examples of the four regular conjugations are now 
given to be learned by heart. The tenses of the Passive 
Voice are arranged opposite to those of the Active ; not 
that they may be learned simultaneously, but that when 
those of the Active have been learned the Passive may be 
compared with them in form and meaning, and may thus 
be acquired more readily and intelligently. 

281. — A complete analysis of the forms of the verb, 
based upon their derivation from their stems, will be found 
in 330, etc. Meanwhile, it may be worth while for young 
pupils to observe, in regard to the formation of the tenses 
in the Indicative Mood, Active, that : 

1. The Present is a primary tense, as formed 
directly from the first stem. 



281] FORMATION OF TENSES. 87 

2. The Imperfect is formed from the Present by- 
changing : 

In the 1st Conjugation, o into abam ; as, amo, amabam. 
" 2d " eointoebam; as, moneo, monebam. 

« 3d and 4th " o into ebam : as, j *^?J ^6«m, 

9 ' ( audio, audiebam. 

3. The Future is formed from the Present by chang- 
ing : 

In the 1st Conjugation, q into abo; as, amo, amabo. 
" 2d " eo into ebo ; as, moneo, monebo. 

« 3d and 4th « o into am; as J re ^i re ^ 

7 ' ( audio, audiam. 

4. The Perfect is a primary tense, as formed di- 
rectly from the second stem. 

5. The Pluperfect in all conjugations is formed 
from the Perfect by changing I into eram; as, amdvl, 
amdveram. 

6. The Future Perfect in all conjugations Is formed 
from the Perfect by changing I into ero ; as, amavi, amd- 
vero. 

In the formation of the Passive Tenses in the Indica- 
tive Mood, from the Active, observe that : 

1. In the Present Tense, r is added ; as, amo, amor. 

2. In the Imperfect Tense, m is changed to r ; as, 
amabam, amabar. 

3. In the Future Tense, r is added to bo ; as, amabo, 
amdbor; and m is changed to r ; as, audiam, audiar. 

4. The Perfect Tenses Passive are not made from 
the corresponding Active ones, but are formed (in all the 
moods) by joining the Perfect Participle Passive with the 
different tenses (Present, Imperfect, Future, etc.) of the 
verb sum. The Perfect Participle so used is a complement 
(666), and must agree in case, gender, and number, with the 
subject. 



88 FIRST CONJUGATION. [282 



2S2.-FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Pres. Ind. Supine. 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, to love, 

(1. ama-) (2. amav-) (3. amato-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, love, do love, am loving {Present Imperfect)* 

> 
Sing. 1. Amo (=ao) 9 Hove, do love, am loving, 

2. Amas 9 Thou lovest, dost love, art loving, 

3. Amat 9 He loves, does love, is loving ; 
Plur. 1. Amamns, We love, do love, are loving, 

2. Amatis, Ye, or you love, do love, are loving, 

3. Amaiat* They love, do love, are loving. 

Imperfect, loved, did love, was loving (Past Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Amabam, I loved, did love, was loving, 

2. Amatoas, Thou lovedst, didst love, wast loving, 

3. Amafoat, He loved, did love, was loving ; 
Plur. 1. Amabamus, We loved, did love, were loving, 

2. Amatoatis, Ye loved, did love, were loving, 

3. Amaoant 9 They loved, did love, were loving. 

Future, shall or will love. 
Sing. 1. Amabo, I shall, or will love, 

2. Amatols, Thou shalt, or wilt love, 

3. Amatoit, He shall, or will love ; 

Plur. 1. Amatoiiiros, We shall, or will love, 

2. Amatoitis, Ye shall, or will love, 

3. Aroabimt, They shall, or will love. 

Perfect, have loved (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, loved, did love. 
Sing. 1. Amavi, I have loved, loved, did love, 

2. AmavistI, Thou hast loved, lovedst, didst love, 

3. Amavit, He has loved, loved, did love ; 
Plur. 1. Amavimus, We have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Amavistis, Ye have loved, loved, did love, 



3. AmavSrant, or 
-avfsre. 



They have loved, loved, did love. 



283] FIRST CONJUGATION. 89 



SS3.-FIRST CONJUGATION. 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Amor, amarl, amatus, To be loved, 

(1. ama-) (3. amato-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am loved (Present Imperfect), 
Sing. 1. Amor (=aor), lam loved, 

2. Amaris, or are, Thou art loved, 

3. Amatur 9 He is loved ; 

Plur. 1. Amamnr, We are loved, 

2. Amamini, Ye are loved, 

3. Amantur, They are loved. 

Imperfect, was loved (Past Imperfect)* 
Sing. 1. AmEbar, I was loved, 

2. Amal>aris 9 or abare, Thou wast loved, 

3. Amabatur 9 He was loved ; 

Plur. 1. Amabamar, We were loved, 

2. Amabamiiii, Ye were loved, 

3. Amabantur, They were loved. 

Future, shall, or will be loved. 
Sing. 1. Amabor, I shall, or will be loved, 

2. Amaheris, or abere, Thou shalt, or wilt be laved, 

3. Amabitiir 9 He shall, or will be loved ; 

Plur. 1. Amabimnr, We shall, or will be loved, 

2. AmaDlmliii 9 Ye shall, or will be loved, 

3. Amabuntur, They shall, or will be loved. 

Perfect, have been loved (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, was loved. 
Sing. 1. Amatus sum, or fui, Ihave been loved, etc., 

2. Amatu.s es, or fuistT, Thou hast been loved, 

3. Amatus est, or fuit. He has been loved ; 
Plur. 1. Amatt sumus, or fuimus, We have been loved, 

2. AmatI estis, or fuistis, Ye have been loved, 

3. AmatI sunt, fuerunt or fuere, They have been loved. 



90 FIRST CONJUGATION. [282 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pluperfect, had loved {Past Perfect). 
8,1, Amaveram, I had loved, 

2. Amaverfes, Thou hadst loved, 

3. Amaverat, He had loved ; 

P, 1. Amaveramns, We had loved, 

2. Amaveratis 9 Ye had loved, 

3. Amaveramt, They had loved. 

Future Perfect, shall, or loill have loved, 
8, 1. Amavero, I shall, or will have loved, 

2. Amaveris, Thou shalt, or wilt have loved, 

3. Amaverit, He shall, or will have loved; 
P. 1. Amaveriitaiis, We shall, or will have loved, 

2. Amavei°itls 9 Ye shall, or will have loved, 

3. Amaverisit, They shall, or will have loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can love {Present Imperfect)* 
8. 1. Amesia 9 I may, or can love, 

2. Ames, Thou mayst, or canst love, 

3. Amet 9 He may, or can love ; 

P, 1. AmeiiaiiS, We may, or can love, 

2. Ametis, Ye may, or can love, 

3. Ameiat, They may, or caw love. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should love {Past Imperfect). 

8. 1. Amarem, I might love, 

2. Amares, 7'Aow mightst love, 

3. Amaret, -0s m^A< /owe ; 
P, 1 . Amaremus, TFe might love, 

2. Amaretis, Fe might love, 

3. Amarenl, TVae?/ might love. 

Perfect, may have loved {Present Perfect). 
8,1, Amaverim, I may have loved, 

2. Amaverls, Thou mayst have loved, 

3. Amaverit, He may have loved ; 
P, 1. Amaveriiaas, We may have loved, 

2. Amaveritis, Ye may have loved, 

3. Amaveriat, They may have loved. 



283] FIRST CONJUGATION. 91 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Pluperfect, had been loved (Past Perfect)* 
S, 1. Amatiis eram, or fueram, I had been loved, 

2. Amatus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been loved, 

3. Amatws erat, or fuerat, He had been loved ; 

P, 1. AmatI eramus, or fueramus, We had been loved, 

2. AmatI eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been loved, 

3. AmatI erant, or fuerant, They had been loved. 

Future Perfect, shall, or will have been loved, 
S. 1. Amatus ero, or fuero, I shall have been loved, 

2. Amatias eris, or fueris, Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. Amatus erit, or fuerit, He will have been loved; 

P, 1. AmatI, erimus, or fuerimus, We shall have been loved, 

2. AmatI eritis, or fueritis, Ye will have been loved, 

3. AmatI erunt, or fuerint, They will have been loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can be loved (Present Imperfect). 
& 1. Amer, I may, or can be loved, 

2. Ameris 9 or -ere. Thou mayst, or canst be loved, 

3. Ametiar, He may, or can be loved ; 
P, 1. Amemiir, We may, or can be loved, 

2. Amemiial, Ye may, or can be loved, 

3. Amentn.1% They may, or can be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be loved (Past Imperfect). 
JS. 1. Amarer, I might be loved, 

2. Amareris, or -arere, Thou mightst be loved, 

3. Amaretiir, He might be loved; 

P, 1. Amaremur, We might be loved, 

2. Amaremini, Ye might be loved, 

3. Amarentur, Tliey might be loved. 

Perfect, may have been loved (Present Perfect). 
S, 1. Amatus sim, or fuerim, I may have been loved, 

2. Amatus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst have been loved, 

3. Amatus sit, or fuerit, He may have been loved ; 
P, 1. AmatI simus, or fuerimus, We may have been loved, 

2. AmatI sltis, or fueritis, Ye may have been loved, 

3. AmatI sint, or fuerint, They may have been loved. 



92 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 



[282 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should, have loved {Past Perfect)* 



S. 1. Amavissem, 

2. Amaviss^s, 

3. Amavisset, 

P. 1. Amavissemns, 

2. Amaviss€tis 9 

3. Amavissent, 



I might have loved, 
Thou mightst have loved, 
He might have loved ; 

We might have loved, 
Ye might have loved, 
They might have loved. 



S. 2. Ama, 
P. 2. Amate, 



& 2. Amato, 
3. Amato, 

P. 2. Amatote, 
3. Amanto, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Love thou. 

Love ye. 

Future. 

Thou shall love, 
He shall love, 

Ye shall love, 
They shall love. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. (Imperp.) Amare, To love, 

Perf. Amavisse, To have loved, 

Fut. Esse amatuuriis, a, urn, To be about to love, 

F. Perf. Fuisse amatflrus, a, urn, To have been about to love. 



Pres. Amans (amant(i-)), 

Perf. 

Fut. Amatfiru^, a, urn, 



Gen. Amandl, 
Bat. Amando, 
Ace. Amandiim, 
Abl. Amando, 



Ace. Amatum* 
Abl. Amata, 



PARTICIPLES. 

Loving, 

About to love. 

GERUNDS. 

Of loving. 

To loving, 

Loving, 

With, from, etc., loving. 

SUPINES. 

To love, 

To be loved, in loving. 



283] 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 



93 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
Pluperfect, might, could,would, or should, have been loved (Past Pevfecf). 



S. 1. Amatus essem, or fuissem, 

2. Amatus esses, or fuisses, 

3. Amatus esset, or fuisset, 

P. 1. AmatI essemus, or fuissemus, 

2. AmatI essetis, or fuissetis, 

3. AmatI essent, or fuissent, 



I might have been loved, 
Thou mightst have been loved, 
He might have been loved ; 

We might have been loved, 
Ye might have been loved, 
They might have been loved. 



S. 2. Amare, 
P. 2. amaminl, 



S. 2. Amator, 

3. Amator, 

P. 2. 

3. Amantor, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Be tlwu loved. 
Be ye loved. 

Future. 

Thou shalt be loved, 
He shall be loved 

They shall be loved 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. (Imperf.). Amarl, To be loved. 

Perp. Esse, or fiiisse amatus, To have been loved. 

Fut. Amatum Irl, To be about to be loved. 



Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Amatus, a, um, Loved, having been loved. 

GERUNDIVE. 
Amanitas, a, um, To be loved, being loved. 



9i 



EXERCISES ON THE EIEST CONJUGATION. 



[284 



Synopsis op the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perp. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F. Perp. 



Indicative. 

Amo, 

Amabam, 

Amavi, 

Amaveram, 

Amabo, 

Amavero, 



Subjunctive. 

Amem, 

Amarem, 

Amaverim, 

Amavissem, 



Imp. 
Ama, 



Amato 



Infinitive. 
Amare, 

Amavisse, 

Esse amaturus, 
Fuisse amaturus, 



Participles. 
Amans, 



Amaturus. 



After the same manner, inflect : 



Creo, 



R020, 



Voeo, 



Domo, 



creare, 
(1. crea-), 
rogare, 
(1. roga-), 

voeare, 
(1. voca-), 

domare, 
(1. doma-), 



creavf, creatum, Create. 

(2. creav-), (3. creato-), 
rogavl, rogatum, Ask. 

(2. rogav-), (3. rogato-), 
vocavl, vocatum, Call. 

(2. vocav-), (3. vocato-), 
domuT, domitum, Tame. 

(2. domu-), (3. domito-). 



EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION; ACTIVE VOICE. 

284:. — 1. Give the designation of the verb, conjugate it; give the teme, 
mood, voice, person, number, and translation, of the following words, always 
observing the same order, thus: Amo, a verb transitive, first conjugation; 
amo, amare, amavi, amatum. It is found in the present indicative, active, 
first person singular, " I love," " I do love," '* I am loving." 

Amabat, amaverat, amet, amaveritis, amabunt, creavimus, creaverat, 
domuerat, domuisset, amavero, domuero, vocaverim, voca, voeare, doma, 
creavisse, domuisse, amaturus, domiturus, amans, amandum, amatu, do- 
mitum, domabam, domabo, creat, crearet, amaret, amavistl, amavere, do- 
muistis, amato, amando, amaverunt, creare, vocaverunt, vocaverint, voca- 
bunt, vacaretis, domabitis, etc., ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of the 
verb used, thus : " I was loving," amabam, in the imperfect indicative active, 
first person singular : 

He will love, I might love, I had loved, I might have loved, he shall 
love, I may love, he created, I called, I may have called, he will tame, he 
has tamed, he would have tamed, love thou, let them love, to love, about 
to love, of loving, to have loved, they were loving, they have loved, thou 
hast created, thou hast tamed, etc., ad libitum. 



285] 



EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 



95 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.Perf. 



Indicative. 
Amor, 
Amabar, 


Subjunctive. 
Amer, 
Amarer, 


Imp. 
Amare, 


Infinitvoe. 
Amari, 


Participles. 


Amatus sum, 

Amatus eram, 
Amabor, 
Amatus ero, 


Amatus sim, 
Amatus essem, 


Amator 


( Esse, or 

\ Fuisse amatus, 

Amatum In. 


j- Amatus, 
Amandus, 


After the same manner, inflect : 


Creor, 


creari, 
(1. crea-), 


creatus, Be created, 
(3. creato-), 


Rogor, 
Vocor, 


rogarl, 
(1. roga-), 
vocari, 
(1. voca-), 


rogatus, Be asked. 
(3. rogato-), 

vocatus, Be called. 
(3. vocato-), 


Domor, 


domari, 
(1. doma-), 


domitus, Be tamed. 
(2. domito-). 



EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION ; PASSIVE VOICE. 

285* — 1. Give the designation of the verb, conjugate it ; give the tense, 
mood, voice, person, number, and translation, of the following words, always 
following the same order, thus : Amor, verb transitive, first conjugation ; 
amo, amare, amavl, amatum ; found in the present indicative passive, first 
person singular, " I am loved." 

Amabatur, amantur, amatus est, amabitur, amabar, amaretur, amentur, 
amatus sim, amatus ero, amati fuerunt, amatl essemus, amabamini, amaris, 
amatus esset, amatl fuissent, amabuntur, amantor, amare, amatus esse, 
amatus, amatum Irl, amandus, amemini, amareminl, amantur, creatur, cre- 
aretur, vocabitur, domantur, vocatus sum, etc. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of 
the verb used, thus : "I am loved," amor, in the present indicative passive, 
first person singular : 

He is loved, they are loved, I have been loved, they were created, he 
had been called, they will be tamed, I might be loved, they may have been 
loved, to be loved, to have been called, I had been called, being called, 
they are tamed, they have been tamed, he will be loved, they will have 
been loved, they may be called, I may be called, he might have been 
created, they will be loved, etc. 



96 EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. [286, 287 

286.— The Infinitive with a subject. The infinitive, after another 
verb, and with an accusative before it as its subject, is translated into Eng- 
lish in the indicative or potential mood ; and the accusative in Latm is 
made the nominative in English ; as, dlcit me amare, "he says that I love." 
The accusatives are thus translated : 

Me, that I ; nos, that we ; hominem, that the man. 

Te] that thou ; vos, that you ; homines, that the men. 

Ilium (eum), that he; illos (eos), that they ; feminas, that the women. 

Infinitives, after verbs of the present, past, and future tenses, are ren- 
dered according the following rules, viz. : 

287.— Rule I. When the preceding verb is of the present or future tense, 
the present infinitive is translated as the present indicative; the perfed infin- 
itive, as the perfect indicative ; and the future infinitive, as the future indica- 
tive, thus : 

Dlcit me scribere, he says that I write, or am writing ; 

Dlcit me scripsisse, he says that I wrote ; ^ 

Dlcit me scripturum esse, he says that I will write. 

Rule II. When the preceding verb is in past time (i. e., in the imper- 
fect, perfect, or pluperfect tense), the present infinitive is translated as 
the "imperfect, or perfect indicative ; the perfect infinitive, as the pluperfect 
indicative ; and the future infinitive, as the imperfect subjunctive, thus : 

Dixit me scribere, he said that I wrote, or was writing; 
Dixit me scripsisse, he said that I had written ; 
Dixit me scripturum esse, he said that I would write. 

Rule III. The future perfect of the infinitive with a subject, is always 
translated as the pluperfect subjunctive, whatever be the tense of the preceding 
verb, thus : 

Dlcit me scripturum fuisse, he says that I would have written ; 

Dixit me scripturum fuisse, he said that I would have written ; 

Dlcet me scripturum fuisse, he will say that I would have written. 

1. According to the preceding rules and examples, translate the following 
sentences into English, observing that dlcit, "he says," is present time; dixit, 
"he said," past; and dlcet, "he will s&y," future. 

Dlcit me vocare, te amare, nos amavisse, vos amaturos esse, nos ama- 
turos fuisse, illos domare, te amaturum esse, illos rogaturos esse, homings 
rogaturos fuisse. 

Dixit me vocare, te amare, nos amavisse, nos amaturos esse, nos ama- 
turos fuisse, vos domare, te amaturum esse, ilium rogavisse, vos rogare, 
illam rogaturam esse. 

Dixit nos vocare ; dlcet ilium creare , dlcit te creaturum esse ; dixit s§ 
amaturum esse ; dlcit illos creaturos, ilium vocaturum, vos domituros esse, 
domituros fuisse, me rogare, te rogavisse, vos rogaturos, etc. 

Dlcit eum amari, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum Irl, te amatum M, 
me" creari, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos domitos esse, nos do- 
mitum Irl, illos amari, illos vocatum Irl. 



287] EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 97 

Dixit eum amarl, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum In, te amatum M, 
me crearl, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos domitOs esse, nCs do- 
mitum Iri, illos amarl, illos vocatum Iri, te amari. 

Dicet eum amarl, etc., as in the preceding. 

2. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care to put the 
participle of the future infinitive in the same gender, number, and case, as 
the accusative preceding it : 

He said that I loved, that I was calling. He says that they will tame, 
that I would have created, that they will call, that he loves. He will say 
that I love, that I have loved, that I will love. He said that I had called, 
that they would have called, that they tamed, that they would tame, that 
he would have tamed. He says that I am asking, that they are asking, 
that they are calling, that we did call, that they do ask, that we will ask, 
etc. 

3. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care that the par- 
ticiple of the perfect infinitive be put in the same gender, number, and case, 
as he taccusative before it : 

He says that I am loved, that he was loved, that he will be called, that 
they were created, that we were tamed. He said that I was called, that we 
were created, that they had been created. He will say that I was loved, 
that I will be loved, that they will be called, that you are called, that he 
will be called. He said that they had been tamed, etc. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Active and the Passive Voice. 

Give the designation, etc., as directed above : Amabo, amarem, amare- 
tur, amatus sim, amant, vocatur, crearentur, domantur, domitum iri, crearl, 
amant, amabuntur, amarent, amavissent, amaverat, ametis, amatis, ama- 
batis, amaveris, ama, amavisse, amandum, amatur, vocatum Iri, vocatus es, 
vocati erant, vocatus esset (dlcit se, " he says that he"), amaturum esse 
(dixit se, " he said that he"), amare, amarl (nos, " that we"), vocatos esse, 
amanto, amabunt, amavistis, amavere, amaretis (vos, " that you"), rogare, 
rogavisse, rogatos esse, rogaturos fuisse, rogabunt. 

Conjugate and inflect the following verbs like Amo, viz. : 

Accuso, I accuse. Certo, I strive. Reparo, I repair. 

-rfEstimo, lvalue. C5gito, IHiink. Hogo, I ask. 

Ambulo, I walk. Festino, I hasten. Servo, I keep. 

» Curo, I care. Navigo, I sail. Vlto, I shun. 



98 SECOND CONJUGATION. [288 

2SS.-SECOND CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 



Pres.Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf.Ind. Supine. 

Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, To advm. 

(1. mone-), (2. monu-), (3. monito-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, I advise, do advise, am advising {Present Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Moneo, I advise, 

2. Monies, Thou advisest, 

3. Monet, He advises ; 
Plur. 1. Monfcmus, We advise, 

2. MonStis, Ye advise, 

3. Monemt, They advise. 

Imperfect, advised, did advise, was advising (Past Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Monebam, I advised, 

2. Monebas, Thou advisedst, 

3. MoneJmt, He advised ; 
Plur. 1. Monebamus, We advised, 

2. Monebatis, Ye advised, 

3. Monelmnt, They advised. 

Future, shaU, or will advise. 
Sing. 1. Monebo, I shall, or will advise, 

2. MonSbis, Thou shalt, or wilt advise, 

3. Monebit, He shall, or will advise; 
Plur. 1. MonSbimus, We shall, or will advise, 

2. Monebitis, Ye shall, or will advise, 

3. Monebunt, They shall, or w£# advise. 

Perfect, have advised (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, advised, did advise. 
Sing. 1. Monui, I have advised, 

2. MonuistI, Thou hast advised, 

3. Monuit, He has advised ; 
Plur. 1. Monuimus, We have advised, 

2. Monuistis, Ye have advised, 

3. Monuerunt, or ere, They have advised. 



289] 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



99 



289.-SEC0NT> CONJUGATION. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Pari. 

Moneor, moneri, monitus, To be advised. 

(1. mone-), (3. monito-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am advised (Present Imperfect)* 

Sing. 1. Moneor, lam advised, 

2. Moneris, or ere, Thou art advised, 

3. Mon£tur, He is advised ; 
Plur. 1. Monemur, We are advised, 

3. Monemiul, Ye are advised, 

3. Moneutur, They are advised. 

Imperfect, was advised (Past Imperfect). 



Sing. 1. Monebar, 

2. Monebaris, or €bare, 

3. Monebatur, 

Plur. 1. Monebamur, 

2. Monebamiul, 

3. Monebaatur, 



I was advised, 
Thou wast advised, 
He was advised ; 

We were advised, 
Ye were advised, 
TJiey were advised. 



Plur. 



Filture, shall, or will be advised. 



1. Monel>or, 

2. Moneberis, or ebere, 

3. Monebitur, 

1. Moneoimur, 

2. Monebiminl, 

3. Moneountur, 



I shall, or will be advised, 
Thou shalt, or wilt be advised, 
He shall, or will be advised ; 

We shall, or will be advised, 
Ye shall, or will be advised, 
They shall, or will be advised. 



Perfect, have been (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, was advised. 



Sing. 1. Monitus sum, or fui, 

2. Monitus es, or fuistl, 

3. Monitus est, or fuit, 
Plur. 1. MonitI sumus, or fuimus, 

2. MonitI estis, or fuistis, 



I have been advised, 
Thou hast been advised, 
He has been advised ; 

We have been advised, 
Ye have been advised, 



3. MonitI sunt, fuerunt, etc., They have been advised. 



100 SECOND CONJUGATION. [288 

Pluperfect, had advised {Past Perfect). 
S. 1. Monueram, I had advised, 

2. Monueras, Thou hadst advised, 

3. Monuerat, He had advised ; 
P. 1. Monueramus, We had advised, 

2. Monueratis, Ye had advised, 

3. Monuerant, They had advised. 

Future Perfect, shall, or will have advised. 
S. 1. Monuero, I shall, or will have advised, 

2. Monueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have advised, 

3. Monuerit, He shall, or will have advised ;, 
P. 1. Monuerimus, We shall, or will have advised, 

2. Monueritis, Ye shall, or will have advised, 

3. Monuerinl;, They shall, or will have advised. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can advise (Present Imperfect). 

S. 1. Moneam, I may, or can advise, 

2. Moneas, Thou mayst, or canst advise, 

3. Moneat, He may, or can advise ; 
P. 1. Moneamiis, We may, or can advise, 

2. Moneatis, Ye may, or can advise, 

3. Moneant, They may, or can advise. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should advise (Past Imperfect). 

8. 1. Monfirem, I might advise, 

2. Mon€r£s, Thou mightsl advise, 

8. Mon^ret, He might advise ; 

P. 1. Mon*5renius, We might advise, 

2. Mon€r€tis, Ye might advise, 

3. Moiu&rent, They might advise. 

Perfect, may have advised (Present Perfect). 

S. 1. Monuerim, I may have advised, 

2. Monueris, Thou mayst have advised, 

3. Monuerit, He may have advised; 
P. 1. Monuerimiis, We may have advised, 

2. Monueritis, - Ye may have advised, 

3. Monuerint, They may have advised. 



289] 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



101 



Pluperfect, had been advised (Past Perfect). 



8. 1. Monitus eram, or fueram, 

2. Monitus eras, or fueras, 

3. Monitus erat, or fiierat, 

P. 1. Moniti eramus, or fueramus, 

2. Moniti eratis, or fueratis, 

3. Moniti erant, or fuerant, 



I had been advised. 
Thou hadst been advised, 
He had been advised ; 
We had been advised, 
Ye had been advised, 
They had been advised. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have been advised. 



8. 1. Monitus ero, or fuero, 

2. Monitus eris, or fueris, 

3. Monitus erit, or fuerit, 

P. 1. Moniti erimus, or fiierimus, 

2. Moniti eritis, or fueritis, 

3. Moniti erunt, or fuerint, 



I shall have been advised, 
Thou wilt have been advised, 
He will have been advised ; 
We shall have been advised. 
Ye will have been advised, 
They will have been advised. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be advised (Present Imperfect). 

I may be advised, 
Thou mayst be advised, 
He may be advised; 



8. 1. Monear, 

2. Monearis, or -eare, 

3. Moneatur, 

P. 1. Moneamur, 

2. Mone&miul, 

3. Moneantur, 



We may be advised, 
Ye may be advised, 
They may be advised. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be advised (Past Imperfect). 



8. 1. MonSrer, 

2. Mon«&r©ris, or -£r£re, 

3. Monerfstur, 
P. 1. 'MonSremur, 

2. Mon£r€minI 9 

3. MonCreutur, 



I might be advised, 
Thou mightst be advised, 
He might be advised ; 

We might be advised, 
Ye might be advised, 
They might be advised. 



Perfect, may have been advised (Present Perfect). 



8. 1. Monitus sim, or fuerim, 

2. Monitus sis, or fueris, 

3. Monitus sit, or fuerit, 

P. 1. Moniti simus, or fuerimus, 

2. Moniti sitis, or fueritis, 

3. Moniti sint, or fuerint, 



I may have been advised, 
Thou mayst have been advised, 
He may have been advised ; 

We may have been advised, 
Ye may have been advised, 
They may have been advised. 



102 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



[288 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have advised (Past Perfect). 

S. 1. Monuissem, I might have advised, 

2. Monuisses, Thou mightst have advised, 

3. Monuisset, He might have advised ; 
P. 1. Monuissemns, We might have advised, 

2. MonuissStis, Ye might have advised, 

3. Monuissent, They might have advised. 



Sing. 2. Mone", 
Plur. 2. Monete, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present 

Advise thou. 



Sing. 2. Mon&to, 
3. Mon£to, 

Plur. 2. Mon^tote, 
3. Memento, 



Advise ye. 
Future. 

Thou shall advise. 
He shall advise ; 
Ye shall advise, 
They shall advise. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. (Imperf.) Monere, 

Perp. Monuisse, 

Fut. Esse monitttrns, 



F. Perp. 



To advise, 

To have advised, 

To be about to advise. 



Fuisse monituriis, To have been about to advise. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. Monens (monent(i-)), 

Perp. 

Fut. Monitftrns, 



Advising, 
About to advise. 



Gen. Monencil, 
Dot. Monendo, 
Ace; Monendmii, 
Abl. Monencio, 



GERUNDS. 



Of advising, 

To advising, 

Advising, 

With, etc., advising. 



Ace. Monitum, 

Abl. Moiiitii* 



SUPINES. 

lb advise, 

To be advised, or in advising. 



289] 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



103 



Pluperfect, might, could,would, or should have been advised {Past Perfect) 
8. 1. Monitus essem, or fuissem, I might have been advised, 



2. Monitus esses, or fuisses, 

3. Monitus esset, or fuisset, 

P. 1. MonitI essemus, or fuissemus, 

2. MonitI essetis, or fuissetis, 

3. MonitI essent, or fiiissent, 



Thou mightst have been advised, 
He might have been advised ; 

We might have been advised, 
Ye might have been advised, 
They might have been advised. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

8. 2. MonSre, Be thou advised. 

P. 2. Monemiiil, Be ye advised. 



S. 2. Monitor, 

3. Monetoi% 

P. 2. 

3. Monentor, 



Future. 

Thou shalt be advised, 
He shall be advised. 

They shall be advised. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. (Imperfect), MonSrI, To be advised, 

Perp. Esse, or ftrisse ) m , , , . , 

monitus, \ To have bem aduwd * 

Fut. Monitum Irl, To be about to be 



Pees. 
Perf. 
Fut. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Monitus, a, um, Advised, or having been advised, 



GERUNDIVE. 
Monendus, a, um, To be advised, or being advised. 



104 



EXERCISES ON THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 



[290 



Synopsis op the Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


SubjtmcUve. 


Irnper. 


Infinitive. 


Participles. 


Pres. 


Moneo, 


Moneam, 


Mone. 


Monere, 


Monens, 


Imp. 


Monebam, 


Monerem, 








Perp. 


Monul, 


Monuerim, 




Monuisse, 




Plup. 


Monueram, 


Monuissem 








Fut. 


Monebo, 


I 


MonSto 


Esse moniturus, 


Moniturus. 


F. Perp. 


Monuero. 






Fuisse moniturus. 




After the same manner, inflect : 




Doceo, docSre, docui, doctum, To teach. 


(1. doce-), (2. doeu-), (3. docto-). 




Jubeo, jubere, jussl, jussum, To order. 


(1 . jube-), (2. juss-), (3. jusso-). 




Video, videre, vidi, visum, To see. 




(l.vH 


le-), (2. vid-), 


(3. viso-). 





290. 



EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 284. — Monebo, monuit, monSret, 
monuerit, mone, monuisse, monens, monendum, monebat, monent, monento, 
monuisti, monuere, monueratis, monuissent. — Docent, jubebat, jusserat, 
videret, videat, videbit, docueris, doce, doctiirus, jussurus, visum, jussti, 
docens, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, etc., as directed 284. — I have ad- 
vised, I will advise, he may advise, I might advise, he will have advised, 
they advise, they had advised, they might have advised, thou hast advised, 
ye have advised, I did advise, he was advising. — He teaches, they taught, 
we had ordered, we would have ordered, I saw, I have seen, thou wilt see, 
he may see, they would have ordered, etc. 

3. Translate according to the rules 286, 287. — Dicit (he says) me 
monere, — nos monuisse, — illCs monere, — vos monitiirOs esse, — me" moni- 
tiirum fuisse. — Dixit (he said) se monere, — nos videre, — eum vidisse, — nos 
vistiros esse, — me vlsurum esse, — me vistirum fuisse, — vOs vidisse, — s<5 
docSre, — n6s docuisse, — vOs docttiros esse, — illam {that she) visiiram esse, 
— ilium docttirum esse, etc. 

4. As directed 286, 287. — He says that I advised ; he said that I ad- 
vised, — that I had advised, — that I would advise. He says that I will ad- 
vise, — that I would have advised. He said that he (se) saw, — had seen, — 
would see, — would have seen. / advise that you should order. He says 
that I am advising, — that we will order, etc. 

Promiscuous Exercises, Active and Passive. 
1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 284, 285. — Monebam, monuerat, 
monuerit, mone bunt, moneam, mone, monebar, monitus es, monuit, moneri, 
doctus sum, docear, docerer, docebitur, docento, docentor, docentur, jubet, 
jusserunt, jusserint, jubebo, juberentur, jussus esse, jube, video, vident, 
videretur, vide, vldistis, videratis, vide rent, videro, videndum, videns, 
vlsiirus, vidisse, visum Iri, videri, monebuntur, moneantur, viderentur, jus- 
serim, jubebam, juberer, videntur, docuerunt, doce, docens. 



291] 



EXEKCISES ON THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 



105 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perp. 

Plup. 
Fut. 
F. Perp. 



Indicative. 
Moneor, 
Monebar, 

Monitus sum, 

Monitus eram, 
Monebor, 
Monitus fuero. 



Subjunctive. 
Monear, 
Monerer, 

Monitus sim, 

Monitus essem 



Imper. 
Monere 



monetor 



Infinitive. 
Moneri, 

j Esse, or Fu- 
\ isse monitus, 

Monitum in. 



Participles 



y MoDitus. 
Monendus. 



Doeeor, 
Jubeor, 
Videor, 



After the same manner, inflect : 

doceri, doctus, To be tauglvt. 

(1. doce-), (3. docto-), 

juberi, jussus, To be ordered, 

(1. jube-), (3. jusso-), 

videri, visus, To be seen. 

(1. vide-), (3. viso-). 

EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



291. 

1. Owe the designation, etc., as directed 285. — Moneor, monetur, mone- 
batur, monebitur, monitus est, monitl estis, moneamur, moneretur, monitus 
ero, monere, moneri, monitus, monitus esse, monendus. Videretur, visus, 
visum M, docerentur, doceantur, docemini, doceamini, jubebitur, jussi 
fuerunt, juberentur, jubetor, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 285.— I was advised, 
he has been advised ;— he mav be advised, we will be advised, we were ad- 
vised, I am advised, they might have been advised. Be ye advised, to be 
about to be advised, to be advised, he may have been seen;— they should 
be ordered, we will be seen, they will be taught, having been taught, to be 
taught, they shall be taught ;— they have been ordered, we might have been 
ordered, to be about to be ordered, being ordered, they may have been 
ordered, etc. 

Promiscuous Exercises, Active and Passive. 

2 Translate the following into Latin, as directed 284, 285.— I am ad- 
vised, he advises, they will advise, ye have advised, they will have advised, 
he will be advised, he is taught, he has taught, they will teach, I will see, 
thev may see, they are seen, he has been seen, to order, to have been or- 
dered, ordering, about to order, to have seen, I might see, I might have 
been seen, they will not (non) see, he will not s ? e, I do not advise, he is 
teaching, he is not teaching, he will not order, I will order, etc. 

3 As directed 286, 2Sl.—DicU se monere,— nos monuisse,— eum moni- 
turum esse,— vos videre,— eum visum iff. Dixit se monere —nos monuisse, 
—eum momturum esse,— vos videre,— eum visum iri. Dicet se monere, 
etc.,— vOs monuisse,— homines monituros esse,— feminam momturam esse, 
vosjubere. . 

4 As directed 286, 287.— He says that he advises,— that he will advise, 
—that we have advised. He said that I advised,— that he had advised,— 
that they would have advised,— that I would order,-would have ordered, 
—would not have ordered,— was taught,— had been taught,— would be 
taught, etc. 

5* 



106 THIRD CONJUGATION. [292 



29S.-THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Ind. Supine. 

Rego, regere, rexi, rectum, To rule. 

(1. reg-) (2. rex-) (3. recto-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, rule, do rule, am ruling (Present Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Rego, I rule, do rule, am ruling, 

2. Regis, Thou rulest, dost rule, art ruling, 

3. Regit, He rides, does rule, is ruling ; 
Plur. 1. Regimus, We rule, do rule, are ruling, 

2. Regitis, Ye rule, do rule, are ruling, 

3. Regunt, They rule, do rule, are ruling. 

Imperfect, ruled, did rule, was ruling {Past Imperfect)* 
Sing. 1. Rege'bam, I ruled, did rule, was ruling, 

2. Regebas, Thou ruledst, didst rule, wast ruling, 

3. Rege bat, He ruled, did rule, was ruling ; 

Plur. 1. Regebamus, We ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

2. Regebatis, Ye ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

3. Reg€bant, They ruled, did rule, were ruling. 

Future 9 shall, or will rule. 
Sing. 1. Regam, I shall, or will rule, 

2. Reg€s, Thou shalt, or wilt rule, 

3. Reget, He shall, or will rule ; 

Plur. 1. Regemns, We shall, or will rule, 

2. RegStis, Ye shall, or will rule, 

3. Regent, They shall, or will rule. 

Perfect, have ruled {Present Perfect) ; Aorist, ruled, did rule. 
Sing. 1. Rexi, I have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rexistl, Thou hast ruled, ruledst, didst rule, 

3. Rexit, He has ruled, ruled, did rule ; 
Plur. 1. Reximus, We have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rexistis, Ye have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

3. Rexernnt, or 6re, They have ruled, ruled, did rule. 



293] THIRD CONJUGATION. 107 

293.-THIRD CONJUGATION 

PASSIVE VOICE, 

Pre*. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part 

Regor, regT, rectus, To be ruled. 

(1. reg-) (3. recto-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am ruled (Present Imperfect). 
Sing. I. Reg©i% I am ruled, 

2. Regeris, or ere, Thou art ruled, 

3. Regitur, He is ruled, 
Plur. 1. Regimur, We are ruled, 

2. Regiminl, Ye are ruled, 

3. Reguntur, They are ruled. 

Imperfect, was ruled (Past Imperfect). 

Sing. 1. Regelmr, /"« ™K 

2. Regetoaris, or ebare, Thou wast ruled, 

3*. Regebatur, He was ruled, 

Plur. 1. Regebamur, We were ruled, 
2. Reg^bamiBtf* 



Ye were ruled, 



3*. Regebautur, They were ruled. 

Future, shall, or will be ruled. 

Sing. I. Regar, I sholl, or wiU be ruled, 

2 Re-eris, or ere, Thou shall, or wilt be ruled, 

3* Regetur, ^ ^ or «*» °* ftlW '* 

Pfor. 1. Regemur, ** ^, or iM ™K 

2. Regemiu*, ^ ^ or wzll be ruled 

3. Regentur, They shall, or ^ 6, ruled, 

Perfect, ta» to «W(«wetrt Perfect) ; ^orisf, im r«fal 
Sing. 1. Rectus sum, or fui, Jfow« ^ mfe( 

2. Rectus es, or fuisti, T^oi* hast been ruled, 

3. Rectus est, or fuit, ife A« been ruled ; 
Plur. 1. Recti sumus, or fuimus, TO have been ruled 

2. Recti estis, or fuistis, F* A«w been ruled 

3 Recti sunt, fuenmt, or fuere, They have been ruled. 



108 THIRD CONJUGATION. [292 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Pluperfect, had ruled {Past Perfect)* 
8, 1. Kexeram, I had ruled, 

2. Rexeras, Thou hadst ruled, 

3. Rexerat, He had ruled ; 
P, 1. Rexeramus, We had ruled, 

2. Rexeratls, Ye had ruled, 

3. Rexerant, They had ruled. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have ruled, 
S. 1. Rexero, I shall, or will have ruled, 

2. Rexeris, Thou shall, or wilt have ruled, 

3. Rexerit, He shall, or will have ruled; 

P, 1. Rexerimus, We shall, or will have ruled, 

2. Rexeritis, Ye shall, or will have ruled, 

3. Rexerint, They shall, or will have ruled, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can rule (Present Imperfect), 
S, 1. Regam, I may, or can rule, 

2. Regas, Thou mayst, or canst rule, 

3. Regat, He may, or can rule ; 
P, 1. Regainns, We may, or can rule, 

2. Regatis, Ye may, or can rule, 

3. Regant, They may, or can rule. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should rule (Past Imperfecta 

S, 1. Regerem, I might rule, 

2. RegerSs, T'Aow mighM rule, 

3. Regeret, .He m?#A£ rwte / 

P. 1. Regeremws, We might rule, 

2. RegeivBtis, Pe might rule, 

3. Regerent, TAey might ride. 

Perfect, may have ruled (Present Perfect*) 

S. 1. Rexerim, I may have ruled, 

2. Rexeris, Thou mayst have ruled, 

3. Rexerifc, He may have ruled; 
P, 1. Rexerirans, We may have ruled, 

2. Rexeritis, Ye may have ruled, 

3. Rexcrint, They may have ruled, 






293] THIRD CONJUGATION. 109 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Pluperfect, had been ruled {Past Perfect). 

S. 1. Rectus eram, or fueram, I had been ruled, 

2. Rectus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been ruled, 

3. Rectus erat, or fuerat, He had been ruled ; 

P. 1. Recti eramus, or fueramus, We had been ruled, 

2. Recti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been ruled, 

3. Recti erant, or fuerant, They had been ruled. 

Future Perfect, shall, or will have been ruled. 
S. 1. Rectus ero, or fuero, I shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Rectus eris, or fueris, Thou shall, or wilt have been ruled, 

3. Rectus erit, or fuerit, m He shall, or will have been ruled, 
P. 1. Recti erimus, or fuerimus, We shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Recti eritis, or fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been ruled, 

3. Recti erunt, or tuerint, They shall, or will have been ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be ruled {Present Imperfect). 
S. 1. Regar, I may, or can be ruled, 

2. Regarfs, or are, Thou mayst, or canst be ruled, 

3. Regatur, He may, or can be ruled ; 

P. 1. Regamur, We may, or can be ruled, 

2. Regamiul, Ye m,ay, or can be ruled, 

3. Regautur, They may, or can be ruled. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be ruled {Past Imperfect). 
S. 1. Regeret, I might be ruled, 

2. Regereris, or er^re, Thou mightst be ruled, 

3. Regeretur, He might be ruled; 
P. 1. Regeremur, We might be ruled, 

2. Regeremial, Ye might be ruled, 

3. Regerentar, They might be ruled. 

Perfect, may have been ruled {Present Perfect). 
S. 1. Rectus sim, or fuerim, I may have been ruled, 

2. Rectus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst have been ruled, 

3. Rectus sit, or fuerit. He may have been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti slmus, or fuerimus, We may have been ruled, 

2. Recti sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been ruled, 

3. Recti sint or fuerint, They may have been ruled. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



[292 



110 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have ruled {Bast Perfect). 

S. 1. Rexissem, I™9 U have ™^> _ - 

2. RexissSs, Thou mightst have ruled, 

3. Rexisset, ^ ™9 ht have ruled; * 
P. 1. Rexissemus, U* ™^ to « H*W 

' 2 Rexissetis, ^ ™'^ *«* ™ W ' * 

3. Rexissent, Thou might have ruled. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 2. Rege, 
P. 2. Regite, 



Present. 

Rule thou. 
Rule ye. 



S. 2. Regit©, 
3. Regit©, 

P. 2. RegitOte, 
3. Regunt©, 



Future. 

Thou shalt rule, 
He shall rule. 
Ye shall rule, 
They shall rule. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. (Imperfect). Regere, 
Perp. Rexisse, 

p UT# Esserect-arns, 

F. Perf. Fuisse rectttras, 



To rule, 

To have ruled, 

To be about to rule, 

To have been about to rule. 






PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. (Imperfect). Regens, Ruling, 



Perf. 

p UT# RectHniSj 


, a, um, About to rule. 




GERUNDS. 


Gen. Regendl, 
Bat Regendo, 
Ace. Regeiidiim, 
Abl Regend©, 


Of ruling, 

To ruling, 

Ruling, 

With, etc., ruling. 




SUPINES. 


Ace. Rectum, 
Abl Recti*, 


lo rule. 

To be ruled, or in ruling. 



293] THIRD CONJUGATION. Ill 

PLUPERFECT,m^7i/, could, would, or should have been ruled ( Past Perfect)* 
S. 1. Rectus essem, or fuissem, I might have been ruled, 

2. Rectus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been ruled, 

3. Rectus esset, or fuisset, He might have been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been ruled, 

2. Recti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been ruled, 

3. Recti essent, or fuissent, They might have been ruled. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
8. 2. Regere, Be thou ruled, 

P. 2. Regiminl, Be ye ruled. 

Future. 
S. 2. Regitor, Thou shalt be ruled, 

3. Regitor, He shall be ruled. 

P. 2. 

3. Regulator, They shall be ruled. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. (Imperfect). Regl, To be ruled. 

Perp. Esse, or fuisse rectus, To have been ruled. 

Put, Rectum iri, To be about to be ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 

p ERF . Rectus, a, urn, Ruled, having been ruled. 

Put. 

GERUNDIVE. 

Regendus, a, urn, To be ruled, being ruled. 



112 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Sykopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Pres. 


Rego, 


Imp. 


Regebam, 


Perf. 


Rexl, 


Plup. 


Rexeram, 


Fut. 


Regam, 


F. Perf. 


Rexero. 



Regam, 
Regerem, 
Rexerim, 
Rexissem. 



Imp. 
Rege, 



regito, 



Infinitive. 
Regere, 

Rexisse, 

Esse recturus, 
Fuisse recturus. 



After the same manner, inflect 



Lego, 

Scribo, 

Caedo, 



legere, 
(1. leg-), 
scrlbere, 
(1. scrib-), 
caedere, 
(1. caed-), 



(2. leg-), 

scrips!, 

(2. scrips-), 

cecidi, 

(2. cecld-), 



lectum, 
(3. lecto-). 
scriptum, 
(3. scripto-). 
caesum, 
(3. caeso-). 



[294-296 



Participles. 
Regens, 



Recturus. 

To read. 
To write. 
To slay. 



VERBS IN -10.— ACTIVE VOICE. 
294.— There are a few verbs, the present of which ends in io, which j 
belong, not to the fourth, but to the third conjugation. In these, in some 
forms, a consonant-stem was strengthened by the addition of i. Their 
stems may be represented thus: cap(i-). This i, however, is only inserted 
when the endings (in the fourth conjugation) begin with a vowel (i. e., 
when two vowels come together), and, accordingly, in regard to quantity, 
they follow the third conjugation. 



i 



296.— 

Pres. Ind. 
Capio, 



Pres. Inf. 
capere, 
(1. cap(i-), 



Perf. Ind. 
cepi, 
(2. cep-), 



Supine. 

captum, To take. 
(3. capto-). 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 



10, 

Imp. Capi-ebam, 
Fut. Capi-am, 
Perf. Cep-I, 
Plup. Cep-eram, 
F. P. Cep-ero, 



-is, 

-ebas, 

-6s, 

-isti, 

-eras, 

-eris t 



-it; 

-ebat ; 

-et; 

-it; 

-erat; 

-erit; 



-lmus, 

-ebamus, 

-emus, 

-imus, 

-eramus, 

-erimus, 



Plural, 
-itis, 
-ebatis, 
-etis, 
-istis, 
-eratis, 
-eritis, 



-iunt. 

-ebant. 

-ent. 

-erunt, or -ere. 

-erant. 

-erint 



-eres. 



Pres. Capi-am, 

Imp. Cap-erem, 

Perf. Cep-erim, -eris, 

Plup. C5p-issem, -isses, -isset; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

V -at; -amus, 

-eret ; -eremus, 

-erit ; -erimus, 



-atis, -ant. 
-eretis, -erent. 
■eritis, -erint. 



-issemus, -issetis, -issent. 



295-297] 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



113 



Synopsis op the Moods and Tenses 
Indicative. Suljimctive. Imp. 



Infinitive. Participles. 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 
F. Perf. 



Regor, 
Regebar, 
Rectus sum, 
Rectus eram, 
Regar, 
Rectus ero. 



Legor, 

Scribor, 

Caedor, 



Regar, 
Regerer, 
Rectus sim, 
Rectus essem. 



Regere, 



Regitor 



Regi, 

Esse, or fuisse rectus, 
Rectum In. 



Rectus, 
Regendus. 



After the same manner inflect : 

legi, lectus, To be read, 

(1. leg-), (3. lecto-). 

scribi, scriptus, To be written. 

(1. scrib-), (3. scripto-). 

caedl, caesus, To be slain. 

(1. caed-), (3. caeso-). 



VERBS IN -10.— PASSIVE VOICE. 
293. — The verbs conjugated thus are : capio, I take; cupio, I desire; 
facio, I make ; fodio, I dig; fugio, I flee ; jacio, I throw ; pario, I bring 
forth ; quatio, / shake ; rapio, / seize ; sapio, / taste. Also [lacio], / 
draw ; [specio], / see ; which occur only in compounds. Besides three 
deponents: gradior, I walk; morior, I die; patior, I suffer. All of these 
verbs have compounds which are inflected in the same way. 

297.- 

Pre*. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Capior, capi, captus, To be taken, 

(1. cap(i-), (3. capto-). 



INDICATIVE MOOD 

Singular. 

or 



Plural. 
- imur, -imini, 



-iuntur. 



Pres. Cap-ior, \ J^' J-iinr; 

Imp. Capi-ebar, j"^|^ s ' or i-ebatur; -ebamur, -ebamini, -Sbantur. 

Fut. Capi-ar, -j ^™ s ' or i-etur; -emur, -emini, 



-entur. 



Perf. Captus sum, or fui ; captus es, or fuistl, etc. 
' Plup. Captus eram, or fueram ; captus eras, or fueras, etc. 
F. P. Captus ero, captus eris, captus erit, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
-aris, or 



-antur. 



Pres. Capi-ar, j j£f' or ^-atur; -amur, -amini, 

Imp. Cap-erer, •] ~ er ? ns ' or i-eretur; -eremur, -eremini, -erentur. 

Perf. Captus sim, or fuerim ; captus sis, or fueris, etc. 
Plup. Captus essem, or fuissem ; captus esses, or fuisses, etc. 



114 EXERCISES ON THE THIRD CONJUGATION. [298 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Cape, capite. 
Fut. Capito, capito, capitote, capiunto. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Capere, Fut. Esse capturus, 

Perp. Cepisse, F. Perp. Fuisse capturus. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Capiens, Fut. Capturus, a, um, 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Ace. Capiendum, Ace. Captum, 

Gen. Capiendl, etc. AM. Captu. 

So also : 

Rapio, rapere, rupui, raptum, To seize. 

(1. rap(i-)), (2. rapu-), (3. rapto-). 

Fugio, fugere, iugl, fugitum, To flee. 

(l.fug(i-)), (2. fug-). 

£0S.— EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 284: Regebam, rexistl, rex- 
eram, regam, regerem, rexero, rexisset, rege, rexisse, regens. Scribit, 
scribebat, scripsit, scribemus, scribamus, legunt, legeret, leget, lege, lege- 
runt, legerant. Capiunt, capiebat, capiunto, caperem, cepit, ceperim, ce- 
peram, cepissem, capit, capere, capiendum, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 284: He rules, we 
are ruling, he has ruled, we will rule, they will have ruled, ye might rule, 
they may rule, we will rule, they were ruling, he had ruled, they might have 
ruled. He has read, they will read, we shall read, to have read, to have 
written, to write, writing, write thou, let them write. 

3. Translate according to the rules in 286, 287 : (Dicit, " he says"), 
me" regere, — me scribere, — se rexisse, — nos recturos esse, — ilium scripsisse, 
— m<5 scripturum fuisse, — vos lectiiros esse, — me capere, — vos cepisse, — 
vos capturos esse, — vos capturos fuisse. (Dixit, " he said "), — me regere, — 
me rexisse, — me recturum esse, etc. 

4. As directed in 286, 287 : He says that I rule, — that he ruled, — that 
we write, — that they will write, — that he is about to write. He writes that he 
rules, — that you are reading, — that you will write. He said that he was 
writing, — that you had written, — that we would write, — would have 
written. 



299] EXERCISES ON THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 115 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Capere, capiminl. 
Fut. Capitor, capitor, capiuntor. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Capl, Fut. Captum Irl. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse captus. 

PARTICIPLES. GERUNDIVE. 

Perf. Captus, a, um. Fut. Capiendus, a, urn. 

So, also : 

Rapior, rapi, raptus, To be seized. 

(1. rap(i-)), (3. rapto-). 

Patior, pati, passus, To suffer. 

(1. pat(i-)), (3. passo-). 

299.— EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 285. — Regitur, regetur, regi- 
mini, rectus est, rectus fuerit, regerer, regar, regor, regere, reguntor, rectus, 
rectum irl, rectus esse, regi, regebatur, reguntur, regentur, rectus sim, 
rectus esset Capiar, capiuntur, capiuntur, capiebatur, captus sum, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 285. — He is ruled, I 
was ruled, they will be ruled, they have been ruled, we might be ruled, he 
might have been ruled, they were ruled, ye had been ruled, to have been 
ruled, being ruled, to be ruled, let them be ruled. They are taken, they 
will be taken, let them be taken, they have been taken, he will be taken, 
they might be taken, be thou taken, etc. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Third Conjugation. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed in 284, 285. — Regebat, 
rexerunt, rexerat, reget, rexit, rexerint, legit, legit, leget, legat, legerit, 
scripserit, scripsisse, scribitur, scriptus est, scrip turn Irl, legi, legere, legisse, 
rexisse, lectus esse, legitor, rectus, regens, scripturus, scribendus, lectii, 
scribere, scripsere, capitor, ceperunt, ceperint, scriptum esse, rexi, regi, 
regam, regeret, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed in 286, 287 : I rule, 
I am ruled, he rules, they are ruled, they have ruled, they have been 
ruled, they will rule, he might rule, they might be ruled, we will read, he 
may have been taken, they will have been ruled, he might have written, to 
be ruled, rule thou, let him be ruled, they were writing, they might write, 
to have written, to have read, to have ruled, to have taken, they had writ- 
ten, had ruled, had read, had taken. 



116 FOURTH CONJUGATION. [300 |l 

3O0.-FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Audio, audire, audlvl, audltum, To hear. 

(1. audi-), (2. audiv-), (3. audita-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, hear, do hear, am hearing (Present Imperfect), 

Sing. 1. Audio, I hear, do hear, am hearing, 

2. Audls, Thou hearest, dost hear, art hearing, 

3. Audit , He hears, does hear, is hearing ; 
Plur. 1. Audlmus, We hear, do hear, are hearing, 

2. Audltis, Ye hear, do hear, are hearing, 

3. Audiaat, They hear, do hear, are hearing. 

Imperfect, heard, did hear, loos hearing (Past Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Audi£"bam, I heard, did hear, was hearing, 

2. Audiebas, Thou heardst, didst hear, wast hearing 

3. Audii^foat;, He heard, did hear, was hearing ; 
Plur. 1. Audiebamus, We heard, did hear, were hearing, 

2. Audifcbatis, Ye heard, did hear, were hearing, 

3. AudiSbant, They heard, did hear, were hearing 

Future, shall, or will hear. 
Sing. 1. Audiam f I shall, or will hear, 

2. Audies, Thou shali, or wilt hear, 

3. Audiet* He shall, or will hear ; 
Plur. 1. Audiemas, We shall, or will hear, 

2. Audietis, Ye shall, or will hear, 

3. Audieat, They shall, or will hear. 

Perfect, have heard (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, heard, did hear. 
Sing. 1. Audlvl, I have heard, heard, did hear, 

2. Audivistl* Thou hast heard, heardst, didst hear, 

3. Audlvit, He has heard, heard, did hear ; 
Plur. 1. Audivimiis, We have heard, heard, did hear, 

2. Audivistis, Ye have heard, heard, did hear, 

3. AudlvSraat, or €re, They have heard, heard, did hear^ 



>01] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 117 



301.-F0URTH CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Pre*. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part. 

Audior, audiri, audltus, To be heard. 

(1. audi-), (3. audito-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am heard (Present Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Audior, I am heard, 

2. Audlris, or Ire, Thou art heard, 

3. Audltur, He is heard; 
Plur. 1. Audlmur, We are heard, 

2. Audlmim, Ye are heard, 

3. Audiuntur, They are heard. 

Imperfect, was heard (Past Imperfect). 
Sing. 1. Audiehar, I was heard, 

2. Audie baris, or ebare, Thou wast heard, 

3. Audie^batur, He was heard ; 
Plur. 1. Audiebamur, We were heard, 

2. Audiebaminf 9 Ye were heard, 

3. Audi€l>anttir 9 They were heard. 

Future, shall, or will be heard. 
Sing. 1. Audiar, I shall, or will be heard, 

2. Audieris, or 4£re$ Thou shalt, or wilt be heard, 

3. Audie tur, He shall, or will be heard; 
Plur. 1. Audiemur* We shall, or will be heard, 

2. Audiemiul, Ye shall, or will be heard, 

3. Audientur, They shall, or will be heard. 

Perfect, have been heard (Present Perfect) ; Aorist, was heard. 
1. Audltus sum, or fui, I have been heard, 



2. Audltus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been heard, 

3. Audltus est, or fuit, He has been heard ; 
Plur. 1. Auditl sumus, or fuimus, We have been heard, 

2. Auditl estis, or fuistis, Ye have been heard, 

3. Auditl sunt, fuerunt, or fuSre, They have been heard. 



118 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



[300 



Pluperfect, had heard (Past Perfect)* 



S. 1. Audiveram, 

2. Audiveras, 

3. Audiverat, 

P. 1. Audlveramas, 

2. Audiveratis, 

3. Audiveramt, 



/ had heard, 
Thou hadst heard. 
He had heard ; 

We had heard, 
Ye had heard. 
They had heard. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have heard. 



S. 1. Audlvero, 

2. Audiveris, 

3. Audiverit, 

P. 1. Audiverimns, 

2. Audlveritis, 

3. Audlverint, 



I shall, or loill have heard, 
Thou shalt, or wUt have heard, 
He shall, or will have heard ; 
We shall, or will have heard, 
Ye shall, or will have heard, 
They shall, or will have heard. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can hear (Present Imperfect). 

Audiam, I may, or can hear, 



S. 1 

2. Audi&s, 

3. Audiat 9 

P. 1. Audiamus, 

2. Audiatis, 

3. Audiant, 



Thou mayst, or canst hear, 
He may, or can hear ; 
We may, or can hear, 
Ye may or can hear, 
They may, or can hear. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should hear (Past Imperfect). 

S. 1. Audlrem, I might hear, ■ 

2. Audlres, Thou mighUt hear, 

3. Audiret, He might hear ; 
P. 1. Audlremus, We might hear, 

2. AudlrStis, Ye might hear, 

3. Audlrent, They might hear. 

Perfect, may have heard (Present Perfect). 

S. 1. Audiverim, I may have heard, 

2. Audiveris, Thou mayst have heard, 

3. Audiverit, He may have Jieard ; 
P. 1. Audiverimus, We may have heard, 

2. Audfveritis, Ye may have heard, 

3. Audlverint, They may have heard. 



301] 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



119 



Pluperfect, had been heard (Past Perfect) 
S. 1. Audltus eram, orfueram, I had been heard, 

2. Audltus eras, or fueras, 

3. Auditus erat, or fuerat, 

P. 1. Audltl eramus, or } 
fueramus, J 

2. Audltl eratis, or fueratis, 

3. Audit! erant, or fuerant, 



Thou hadst been heard, 
He had been heard ; 

We liad been heard, 

Ye had been heard, 
They had been heard. 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have been heard. 
S. 1. Audltus ero, or fuero, I shall, or will have been heard, 



2. Audltus eris, or fueris, 

3. Audltus erit, or fuerit, 

P. 1. Audltl erimus, or ) 
fuerimus, J 

2. Audltl eritis, or fueritis, 

3. Auditl erunt, or fuerint, 



Thou shall, or wilt have been heard, 
He shall, or will have been heard ; 

We shall, or will have been heard, 

Ye shall, or will have been heard, 
They shall, or will have been heard. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be heard (Present Imperfect)* 



S. 1. Audiar, 

2. Audiaris, or are, 

3. Audiatur, 

P. 1. Audiamur, 

2. Audiamiui, 

3. Audiautur, 



I may, or can be heard, 
Thou mayst, or canst be heard, 
He may, or can be heard ; 
We may, or can be heard, 
Ye may, or can be heard, 
They may, or can be heard. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be heard (Past Imperfect)* 



I might be heard, 
Thou mightst be heard, 
He might be heard ; 

We might be heard, 
Ye might be heard, 
They might be heard. 



S. 1. Audlrer, 

2. Audxreris, or Ir«&re, 

3. Audlri&tur, 

P. 1. AudlrSmur, 

2. Audlremiul, 

3. Audlrentur, 

Perfect, may have been heard (Present Perfect) 

8. 1. Audltus sim, or fuerim, I may have been heard, 

2. Audltus sis, or fueris, 

3. Audltus sit, or fuerit, 
P. 1. Audltl simus, or fuerimus, 

2. Auditl sitis, or fueritis, 

3. Auditl sint, or fuerint, 



Thou mayst have been heard. 
He may have been heard ; 

We may have been heard, 
Ye may have been heard. 
They may have been heard. 



120 



FO0ETH CONJUGATION. 



[300 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should hear (Past Perfect)* 



S. 1. Audivissem, 

2. Audivissfcs, ! 

3. Audivisset, 

P. 1. Audlviss emits. 

2. Audivissetis, 

3. Audi vis sent, 



/ might have heard, 
Thou mightst have heard, 
He might have heard ; 

We might have heard x 
Ye might have heard, 
They might have heard. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Sing. 2. Audi, hear thou. Plur. 2. Audlte, hear ye. 

Future. 
Sing. 2. Audito, thou shalt hear. Plur. 2. AudltOte, ye shall hear. 
3. Audlto, he shall hear. 3. Audivmto 9 they shall hear. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. (Imperf.) Audlre, To hear, 

Perp. Audivisse, To have heard, 

Fut. Esse auditurus. To be about to hear, 

F. Perp. Fuisse audltftrus To have been about to hear. 



Pres. Audieias, 

Perf. 

Fut. Auditttrus, a, urn, 



Gen. Audiendl 9 
Dat. Audiendo, 
Ace. Audienduin, 

AM. Audiendo, 



PARTICIPLES. 
Hearing, 

About to hear. 

GERUNDS. 

Of hearing, 

To hearing, 

Hearing, 

With, etc., hearing. 



SUPINES. 
Ace. Auditiim, 2o hear, 

Abl. Auditft, To be heard, or in hearing. 

Synopsis op the Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Imper. 


Pres. 


Audio, 


Audiam, 


Audi, 


Imp. 


Audiebam, 


Audirem, 




Perp. 


Audivi, 


Audiverim, 




Plup. 


Audiveram, 


Audivissem 




*Fut. 


Audiam, 




Audito 


F. Perf. 


Audivero. 







Infinitive. 
Audire, 

Audivisse, 

Esse audlturus, 
Fuisse auditurus. 



Participles. 
Audiens, 



Audltarus. 



301] 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



121 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been heard. 

S. 1. Auditus essem, or fuissem, I might have been heard, 

2. Auditus esses, or fuisses. 

3. Auditus esset, or fuisset, 

P. 1. Audltl essemus, or fuissemus, 

2. Audltl essetis, or fuissetis, 

3. Audits essent, or fuissent, 



Thou mightst have been heard, 
He might have been heard ; 

We might have been heard, 
Ye might have been heard, 
They might have been heard. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Sing. 2. Audire, be thou heard. Plur. 2. AudlminI, be ye heard. 

Future. 

8. 2. Auditor, thou shalt be heard. P. 2. 

3. Auditor, he shall be heard. 3. Audiuntor, they shall be 

heard. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Audlrl, 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse auditus, 

Fut. Auditum Irl, 



To be heard. 

To have been heard. 

To be about to be heard. 



Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Auditus, a, urn, Heard, having been heard. 

GERUNDIVE. 
Audiendus, a, urn, To be heard, being heard. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 
Fut. 
F. Perf. 



Indicative. 
Audior, 
Audiebar, 

Auditus sum, 

Auditus eram. 
Audiar, 
Auditus ero, 

6 



Subjunctive. 
Audiar, 
Audlrer, 

Auditus sim, 

Auditus essem 



Imp. 
Audire 



Auditor 



Infinitive. Participles. ' 



Audlri, 

\ 



Esse, or 
fuisse auditus 
Auditum irl. 



[• Auditus, 
Audiendus 



122 EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. [302 

After the same manner, inflect : 

Munio, mwrire, munivl, munitum, To fortify, 

(1. muni-), (2. muniv-), (3. munito-). 

Venio, venire, veni, ventum, To come. 

(1. veni-), (2. ven-), (3. vento-). 

Vincio, vinclre, Vinxi, vinctum, To bind. 

(1. vinci-), (2. vinx-), (3. vincto-). 

302. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 284. — Audio, audiunt, audivit, 
audiet, audirent, audi, audivisse, audiverant, audiverunt, muniant, mtinient, 
muniverunt, muniverint, mtiniunto, mimiunt, venerat, venisset, vinxistl, 
vinxisse, vinciet, vinclrent, vinciebara, veniens, ventum, ventiirus, etc. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, etc., as directed 284. — I have 
heard, he heard, they were hearing, we will hear, you might hear, they 
could have heard, hear thou, let them hear, to have heard, hearing, to be 
about to hear, he shall have come, they will bind, let them bind, to have 
bound, binding, of binding, with binding, he had come, he had bound, they 
will fortify, I was hearing, they would have heard, the men (homines) may 
have heard, about to hear, of hearing, they had bound — may have bound — 
will have bound ; bind ye, I have bound, to bind, to have bound, about to 
bind, binding, to have been about to fortify, to have fortified, etc. 

3. Translate according to the rules 286, 287. — Dicit (he says) me audire, 
— vos audire, — eos audivisse, — hominem auditfirum esse, — hominem audi- 
turum fuisse, — homines audituros esse, — feminam, f. (that the woman) ven- 
turam esse, — venturam fuisse. Dixit (he said) se (that he himself) venturum 
esse, — eum (that he, viz. some other person, not himself) venturum fuisse, — 
nos ventiiros esse, — etc. 

4. As directed 286, 287. — He says that I hear, — that we hear, — that 
they have heard, — that they will hear, — that he (himself) will come, — that 
he (some other) will come, — that the men will come, — that the women will 
come. He said that he (himself) came, — that he (another) came, — that 
they had come, — that they would come, — that they would have come, — 
that the women would come, — would have come, etc. He will say that I 
hear, — that I heard, — that I will hear. 



303] 



EXEKCTSES ON THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



123 



After the same manner, inflect 



Munior, 


munirl, 


mimitus, 




(1. muni-), 


(3. munito-) 


Polior, 


pollrl, 


politus, 




(1. poll-), 


(3. pollto-). 


Vincior, 


vinciri, 


vinctus, 




(1. vinci-), 


(3. vincto-). 



To be fortified. 
To be polished. 
To be bound. 



303. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 285. — Audior, audiar, audieba* 
tur, auditus sum, audietur, audlmim, audieminl, audiaminl, audlreminb 
auditus fueris, audire, audlri, audiuntur, audiuntor, audientur, audiantur, 
audit! sunt, auditus erat, miiniebantur, munitus fuerit, munltus esse, mtini- 
tus, munitur, vincitur, vinciatur, vincietur, vincitor. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 285. — He is heard, we 
were heard, he has been heard, they will be heard, ye may be heard, he 
should be heard, hear ye, to be heard, to be about to be heard, I was 
bound, he will be bound, they would be bound, we may have been bound, 
to be fortified, being fortified, to be about to be fortified, to have been for- 
tified, etc. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Fourth Conjugation. 

1. Give the designation, etc., as directed 284, 285. — Audivit, audivere, 
audiebatur, audlretur, audiuntur, audiuntor, munient, munlverint, muni, 
munlre, munltor, muniens ; veniat, veniendi, venl, venere, vinciunt, vinci- 
untor, vincirent, vinxisset, vinctus esset, vinctus fuerit, venit, venit, etc. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin, as directed 285. — I was 
heard, he heard, he has heard, we were heard, ye had been heard, they will 
be heard, they may be heard, they might have been heard, let them come, 
they should come, they will come, they will have come, I might have been 
bound, thou hast been bound, thou wilt be bound, thou art bound, thou 
wast bound, to be about to be bound, being bound, to be bound, binding, etc. 

3. As directed 286, 287.— Dicit (he says) se audire,— se audlvisse,— 
eum audlturum esse, — eos audituros fuisse, — eum auditum esse, — nos audi- 
tum In. Dixit (he said) nos audio,— vos auditos esse, — illos audlturQs 
esse, — feminas audituras fuisse, — feminas auditum Iri, — vos vincire, — vos 
vinciri, etc. 

4. Translate as directed 286, 287. — He says (dicit) that he was heard, — 
that he will hear,— that he bound,— that he was bound,— that he will come, 
—that we will not (non) come. He said (dixit) that he (himself) heard,— 
that he (some other) heard,— that we would hear,— that they would not be 
heard,— that we were bound,— that we had been bound, — that we would be 
bound,— that he had polished,— that they had been polished,— would be 
polished,— would have polished,— would not be polished;— to have been 
polished,— bound,— fortified,— to be fortified. He will say (dicet) that we 
will hear,— will be heard,— will be bound,— polished, etc. 



124 



DEPONENT VERBS. [304-307 



DEPONENT VERBS. 
304. — Deponent Verbs are those which, under a 
passive form, have an active signification ; i. e., they assert 
of their subject that he does something, not that something 
is done to him: as, loquor, I speak ; morior,! die. They 
are called deponent because they lay aside (deponunt) the 
passive meaning, though they keep the passive form. 

305.— It appears probable that the passive voice of Latin verbs was 
originally reflective, being identical in meaning with the GreCk miciaie 
voile, and represented the subject as acting upon himself. Thus from verto, 
1 tarn (another), came vertor, meaning originally / turn myself, but after- 
wards lam turned {by another). Deponent verbs would thus seem to be 
middle verbs in which the reflective meaning was lost sight of ?> without the 
further change taking place which would have made them passive verbs. 

300.— Of many deponent verbs active forms are found as well, and 
sometimes some of the forms of deponent verbs are found used in a pass- 
ive sense, particularly the perfect participle. 

Deponent verbs are conjugated and inflected like the passive voice of 
the conjugations to which they belong; except that they have also the 
participles, gerunds, supines, and future of the infinitive, like the active 
voice. The future infinitive of the passive form is very rare. 

307.— DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part. 

Miror mirarl, mlratus, To admire. 

(1. mira-), (3. mirato-). 

[Inflected like Amor, 283.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mlror, -aris, or -are, etc., I admire, am admiring, etc. 

Imp. Mirabar, -abaris, or -abare, 1 admired, was admiring. 

Fut. Mirabor, -aberis, or -abere, I shall admire. 

Perf. Mlratus sum, or ful, etc., I have admired, I admired. 

Plup. Mlratus eram, or fueram, I had admired. 

F. Perf. Mlratus ero, etc., I shall, or will have admired. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Mirer, -eris, or -ere, etc., I may, or can admire. 
' Imp. Mlrarer, -areris, or arere, / might admire. 
Perf. Mlratus sim, or fuerim, etc., / may have admired. 
Plup. Mlratus essem, or fuissem, / might, etc., have admired. 



308] 



Pres. 

FtJT. 



Mirare, etc., 
Mirator, 



DEPONENT VERBS. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

. Admire thou, etc. 
Thou shall admire. 



125 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Mirarl, To admire. 

Miratus esse, or fuisse, To have admired. 



Pres. 

Perf. 

Fut. Miraturus esse, 

F. Pert. Miraturus fuisse, 



Pres. 
Perf. 
F. Act. 



Mirans, 
Miratus, 
Miraturus, a, um, 

Mirandus, a, um, 
Gen. Mirandl, etc., 



To be about to admire. 

To have been about to admire. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Admiring. 
Having admired. 
About to admire. 

GERUNDIVE. 

To be admired, being admired. 

GERUND. 

Of admiring. 



SUPINES. 

To admire. 

To be admired, in admiring. 
Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Amor, 283. 



Ace. Mlratum, 
Abl. Mlratu, 



308.— DEPONENT VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Deponents of the second conjugation are few in number. Of these, 
medeor, " to heal," has no participle. Mereor has merui, as well as meritus 
sum, in the perfect indicative. Reor has no imperfect subjunctive. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus, To promise. 

(1. pollice-), (3. pollicito-). 
[Inflected like Moneor, 289.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Polliceor, -eris, or -ere, etc., I promise, etc. 

Imp. Pollicebar, -ebaris, or -ebare, etc., I promised, etc. 
Fut. Pollicebor, -eberis, or -Sbere, I will promise. 

Perf. Pollicitus sum, or fui, etc., / have promised, etc. 

Plup. Pollicitus eram, or fueram, etc., I had promised, etc. 



F. Perf. Pollicitus ero, or fuero, 



I shall, or will have promised. 



126 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



[309 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 



Pres. 
Fut. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pollicear, -aris, or -are, etc., I may, or can promise, etc. 

Pollicerer, -ereris, or -erere, 



I might, etc., promise. 



Pollicitus sim, or fuerim, etc., 
Pollicitus essem, or fuissem, 



/ may have promised, etc. 
I might, etc., have promised. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pollicere, Promise thou, etc. 

Pollicetor, etc., Thou shalt promise. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Polliceri, 

Perf. Pollicitus esse, or fuisse, 

Fut. Pollicittirus esse, 

F. Perf. Pollicittirus fuisse, 



To promise. 

To have promised, 

To be about to promise. 

To have been about to promise. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. Pollicens, Promising. 

Perf. Pollicitus, Having promised. 

F. Act. Pollicittirus, a, um, About to promise. 

GERUNDIVE. 

To be promised, etc. 



Pollicendus, a, um, 



Gen. Pollicendi, etc., 



Ace. Pollicitum, 
AM. Pollicitu, 



GERUND. 

Of promising. 

SUPINES. 

To promise. 

To be promised, in promising. 
289. 



Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Moneor, 

309.— DEPONENT VEBBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Utor, uti, usus, To use. 

(1. ut-), (3. uso-). 

[Inflected like Regor, 293.] 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Fut. 

Perf. 

Plup. 



Utor, -eris, or -ere, etc., 
Utebar, -ebaris, or -ebare, 
Utar, eris, or ere, 
Usus sum, or ful, etc., 
Usus eram, or fueram, etc., 



F. Perf. Usus ero, or fuero, etc., 



/ use, do use, am using, etc. 

/ used, did use, was using, etc. 

/ shall use, etc. 

/ have used, used, did use, etc. 

/ had used, etc. 

I shall, or will have used, etc. 



310] DEPONENT VERBS. 127 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Utar, -aris, or -are, etc., I may, or can use, ejfcc. 

Imp. Uterer,-ereris,orerere,etc., I might, could, etc., use. 
Perf. Usus sim, or fuerim, etc., I may have used, etc. 

Plup. Usus essem, or fuissem, etc., I might have used, etc, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Utere, etc., Use thou, etc. 

Put. Utitor, etc., Thou shalt use, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Uti, To use. 

Perf. Usus esse, or fuisse, To have used. 

Fpt. Usurus esse, To be about to use. 

F. Perf. Usurus fuisse, To have been about to use. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Utens, Using. 

Perf. Usus, Having used. 

F. Act. Usurus, a, um, About to use. 

GERUNDIVE. 
Utendus, a, um, To be used, etc, 

GERUND. 

Gen. Utendi, etc. Of using. 

SUPINES. 
Ace. Usum, To use. 

Abl. Usu, To be used, in using. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Regor, 293. 

310.— DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Metior, metiri, mensus, To measure. 

(1. meti-), (3. menso-). 

[Inflected like Audior, 301.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Metior, -iris, or -Ire, etc., I measure, am measuring. 

Imp. Metiebar, -ebaris, or -ebare, / measured, was measuring. 

Fut. Metiar, -eris, or -ere, I shall measure. 

Perf. Mensus sum, or fui, etc., I have measured, measured. 

Plup. Mensus eram, or fueram, etc., / had measured. 

F. Perf. Mensus ero, or fuero, etc., I shall, or will have measured. 



128 DEPONENT VERBS. [311 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRES. 


Metiar, -aris, or 


-are, etc., I may, or can measure. 


Imp. 


Metirer, -reris, or -rere, I might, etc., measure. 


Perf. 


Mensus sim, or fuerim, I may have measured. 


Plup. 


Mensus essem, or fuissem, I might, etc., have measured. 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Pres. 


Metlre, etc., 


Measure thou, etc. 


Fut. 


Metltor, etc., 


Thou shalt measure. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Pres. 


Metiri, 


To measure. 


Perp. 


Mensus esse, or 


fuisse, To have measured. 


Fut. 


Mensurus esse, 


To be about to measure. 


F. Perf. Mensurus fuisse, 


To have been about to measure. 




* 


PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. 


Metiens, 


Measuring. 


Perf. 


Mensus, 


Having measured. 


F. Act 


'. Mensurus, a, urn, 


About to measure. 
GERUNDIVE. 




Metiendus, a, urn, 


To be measured, etc. 
GERUND. 




Gen. Metiendi, 


Of measuring, etc. 
SUPINES. 




Ace. Mensum, 


To measure. 




Abl. Mensti, 


To be measured, in measuring. 



Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Audior, 301. 

311.— EXERCISES ON DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Miror, / admire, 3. Utor, I use. 

2. Polliceor, I promise. 4. Metior, I measure. 

Give the designation* of the verb, conjugate it ; give the tense, mood, per- 
son, number, and translation of the following words, always observing the 
same order, thus : Miror, verb transitive, deponent, first conjugation, Miror, 
mirdri, mirdtus. It is found in the present indicative, first person singu- 
lar ; a I admire, do admire, am admiring." 

Mirabatur, mirabitur, mirantur, mlrabuntur, mlrarentur, pollicitus sum, 
pollicitus erat, pollicitus fuerit, pollicerentur, tititur, usus est, CLtl, iisurus, 

* In parsing deponent verbs, it is necessary, in giving the designation, to state 
whether the verb, as there used, is transitive or intransitive. But in stating the part 
of the verb used, it is unneccessary to mention the voice, because deponent verbs have 
only the passive voice. 



312] SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 129 

utens, titendum, uteretur, utar, metlris, metiuntur, metiuntor, metlminl, 
mensus erat, mensus sit, mens! fuerunt, utere, utere, pollicere, pollicitus, 
pollicens. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the part of 
the verb used, thus : " I have admired," mlralus sum, in the perfect indica- 
tive, first person singular. 

They will use, we shall measure, let them measure, about to use, we 
have used, they may have used, he will have used, they will promise, they 
would have promised, we might admire, I would have used, use thou, let 
them use, promise ye, they have promised, promising, having promised, to 
measure. 

3. Translate the following into English, according to the rules and examples 
286, 287 : Dlcit {he says) me mirari, — vos polliceri,— nos miratos esse, — eos 
pollicituros esse, — homines mensuros esse, — feminas pollicituras esse, — te 
uti, — se mirari, — eum mirari, — me mensurum esse, — vos usuros esse. 
Dlcitur {he is said) pollicitus esse. Dixit {he said) se mirari, — nos pol- 
licitos esse, — eos pollicituros esse, — vos mensos esse, — feminas mensuras 
esse, eum pollicitum esse. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, according to directions 286, 287 : 
He says {dlcit) that I am using, — that thou admirest, — tl«it he has meas- 
ured, — that we will promise,— that the men will measure, — that the women 
will use, — that you will measure, — that I would have used, — that they 
would have admired, — that they admired. He said {dixit) that I was using, 
— had been using, — that you were measuring, — that he measured, — that 
they had promised, — that they would use. 

312.— SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 
There axe four verbs which have their imperfect tenses made in the 
active form, while their perfect tenses follow the passive. They are there- 
fore called semi-deponents. These are : 

Op the Second Conjugation. 
Audeo, audere, ausus sum, To dare. 

Gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, To rejoice. 

Soleo, solere, solitus sum, To be accustomed. 

Of the Third Conjugation. 
Fido, f Idere, f Tsus sum, To trust. 

And the two compounds of this, confido, I trust, and diffido, I dis- 
trust. But confido has rarely also the active form of the perfect. 
Semi-deponent Verbs are inflected thus : 
6* 



130 



SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS. 



[313 



313.— SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Pres.Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part. 

Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare. 

(1. aude-), (3. auso-). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Audeo, -es, -et, etc., 
Imp. Audebam, -ebas, -ebat, etc., 
Fut. Audebo, -ebis, -ebit, etc., 
Perp. Ausus sum, or fui, etc., 
Plup. Ausus eram, or fueram, 
F. Perf. Ausus ero, etc. 



/ dare, do dare, am daring. 

I dared, was daring, etc. 

/ shall dare. 

I have dared, dared, did dare. 

I had dared. 

I shall have dared. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Audeam, -e5s, -eat, etc., 

Imp. Auderem, -eres, -eret, etc., 

Perp. Ausus sim, or fuerim, etc., 

Plup. Ausus essem, or fuissem, etc., 



I may, or can dare. 

I might, could, etc., dare. 

I may have dared. 

I might, etc., have dared. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Aude, e^c, Bare thou, etc. 

Fut. Audeto, etc., Thou shalt dare, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Audere, To dare. 

Perp. Ausus esse, or fuisse, To have dared. 

Fut. Ausurus esse, To be about to dare. 

F. Perf. Ausurus fuisse, To have been about to dare. 



Pres. Audens, 
Perf. Ausus, a, um, 
F. Act. Ausurus, a, um, 

Audendus, a, um, 
Gen. Audendi, etc.. 

Ace. Ausum, 
Abl. Ausu. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Daring. 
Having dared. 
About to dare, 

GERUNDIVE. 

To be dared. 

GERUND. 

Of daring. 

SUPINES. 

To dare. 

To be dared, in daring. 



314-323] REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 131 

314:. — The following verbs are called Neutral Passives, namely : flo, 
" I am made," or " I become ; " vapulo, " I am beaten ; " veneo, " I am 
sold." They have an active form, but a passive signification, and serve as 
passives to facio, verbero, and vendo. Flo has the passive form in the 
preterite tenses. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 

315. — Contractions. In the perfect tenses formed by the ending 
V-, that letter is often omitted. And then in the first and second con- 
jugations, the a or e of the stem make a contraction with the following i or 
e. Thus : 

amavisti = amasti, amaverunt — amarunt, amavisse = amasse, 
delevisti = delesti, deleveram = deleram. delevisse — delesse. 

316. — The third person singular is rarely found so contracted (but 
Lucretius has irrltat for irrltdvit, and disturbed for disturbdvit). It is 
doubtful if -dvimus or -evimus were ever contracted into -dmus, -emus. 

317* — In the fourth conjugation v is constantly omitted before e, 
without further contraction (audierunt, audieram, for audiverunt, audive- 
ram), and before i, with contraction (audisti, desistl, for audivistl, desiisti. 
In the first person sing, the omission of v is rare, except in petii for petivi, 
and the compounds of eo(i-), "go," in which the v is regularly omitted 
(redii, praeteril, for redlvi, praeterlvl). 

318. — In the third conjugation, the two perfects, nov\ and movl in 
compounds, often omit v with contraction : norim, nosti, nosse, admorunt, 
for noverim, novistl, novisse, adm5verunt. 

319. — The third person plur. form in ere, however, never drops v. 

320. — Perfects in si or xi sometimes, particularly in the older Ian" 
guage, omit is, iss, sis, ssi, thus : promistl = promlsistl, dixti = dixisti, 
dixe = diidsse, scripsti = scripsisti, accestis = accessistis. 

321.— The third person plur. of the (present) perfect has both 
erunt and ere. The latter form is not uncommon in the poets and histo- 
rians, but is rarely found in Cicero. The poets in a few words shorten the 
e in erunt (dederunt, steterunt) by systole. 

322. — In the second person sing, of the passive tenses the form 
in re is common, except in the present (imperfect) indicative, because in that 
tense it would give a form identical with other parts of the verb ; thus, 
amare might be taken for the infinitive active or for the present imperative 
passive. 

S23. — The four verbs dlco, duco,facio,fero, omit e in the second sing. 
of the present imperative active 9 making die, due, fac, fer (for dice 
diice, face, fere), and so also in the compounds : educ, perfer, calefac. (Die, 
however, does not occur in compounds.) But those compounds of facio 



132 REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. [324-327 

which change a to i are regular : conficio makes confice (not confic). The 
verb sum (es-) ought to be classed with these four verbs, as the imperative 
is es (not ese). Face sometimes occurs in the poets, rarely dice, duce. The 
present imperative of the verb scio (sci-), " know," hardly occurs, but the 
future is used in the same sense : scito, sciiote. 

324:. — The ending of the gerund, and gerundive participle pass- 
ive, in the third and fourth conjugation, is often undum, undus for endum, 
endus : sepeliundum, potiundus. In certain phrases this form is always used : 
de repetundis rebus accusare, to accuse of extortion, decemviri jurl dicundo, 
a commission of ten for declaring the law. 

325. — Other obsolete or rare forms are : 
ier for I in the present infinitive passive amarier, swibier for amari, scribi. 

Ibam, ibar, for iebam, iebar, in the (past) imperfect of Conjugation IV : 
scibam, largxbar, for sciebam, largiebar. 

Ibo, Ibor for iam, iar, in the future of Conjugation IV : servlbo, opperlbor, 
for serviam, opperiar. The verb eo (i-), " go," has always Ibam, ibo. 
See 413. 

im for am in the present (imperfect) subjunctive, especially in edim (433) 
(for edam) and duim from do, particularly in prayers and execrations : 
dl duint, may the gods grant. This termination is the regular one in 
sim (from sum) and velim, malim, nolim. See 417-419. 

In the second and third person sing, of the future imperative passive, 
mino was anciently used for tor, praef amino, for praefator. Also to 
is sometimes found for tor in the sing, and plur. : tuento, utito, utunio, 
for tuentor, fditor, utunior. 

326. — In place of the usual future, another was formed in the older 
language in the first, second (rare), and third conjugations, by adding to the 
stem so or sso (compare the Greek future) : levasso (from leva-), prohibesso 
(from prohibe-), azo (from ag-), copso (from cap-), faxo (from fac-). From 
this future was formed a subjunctive tense in im (levassim, prohibessim, 
faxim) ; as, ne nos curassis, " don't mind us." In the later periods of the 
language, faxo and faxim occur, and from audeo, ausim, used in doubtful 
assertions, " I might venture." 

327 .—Perfect Tenses made with sum orfui, etc. The 

perfect tenses passive have been given as conjugated with two forms of the 
auxiliary verb, the imperfect and the perfect. Of these, the imperfect 
(sum, eram, etc.) are much the most common ; and there is often a dis- 
tinction of meaning to be observed, the past existence of the state im- 
plied by the participle being more prominently brought out by the use of 
the perfect tenses of the auxiliary. Thus in the words, ejus non longe a 
Tayiagris simulacrum e marmore in sepulcro positum fuit (a marble monu- 
ment of him was placed over his tomb not far from Tanagra), it is asserted 
that the monument was formerly erected, whether it be in existence now 
or not. 



328, 329] PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 133 

328. — The verb sum, through all its tenses, with the future parti" 
dple in rus, is used to express the intention, at the time referred to, of 
doing a thing presently ; or that the action is, or was, or will be, on the point 
of being done. When this idea is to be conveyed, this form of expression 
is used in preference to the future, which simply denotes that an act will 
be effected in future time. This, which is inflected as follows, is sometimes 
called the — 

FIRST PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Amaturus (a, um), sum, / am about to love. 

Imp. Amaturus eram, • / was about to love. 

Perf. Amaturus fui, I have been about to love. 

Plup. Amaturus fueram, I had been about to love. 

Fut. Amaturus ero, Is7iatt be about to love. 

(Amaturus fuero is not used.) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Amaturus sim, I may be about to love. 

Imp. Amaturus essem, I might, etc., be about to love. 

Perf. Amaturus fuerim, / may have been about to love. 

Plup. Amaturus fuissem, / might, etc., have been about to love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Amaturus esse, To be about to love. 

Perf. Amaturus fuisse, To have been about to love. 

329*— -In like manner, the gerundive participle in dus is joined 
with all the tenses of the verb sum, and expresses the propriety or necessity of 
doing something at the time referred to, and thus forms what is called the — 

SECOND PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 

Thus, Pres. Amandus sum, I deserve, or ought to be loved, etc. 

Imp. Amandus eram, I deserved, or ought to be loved, etc., 

and so forth through all the other tenses, as with the participles in rus. 
In analysing such expressions, however, it is better to parse each word of 
the compound separately, and combine them by the rules of syntax. 



134 



TENSE ENDINGS. 



[330-332 



330.— The future infinitive passive is a compound of m, the 
present infinitive passive of eo, " to go," used impersonally, and the. supine 
in urn ; so that amatum iri, literally is, " that people are going to love." Of 
course, amatum being a supine, must not be changed in form to agree with 
its subject, as is the case with the perfect participle amatus, etc. 



comparative view of the four 
conjugations: 

33 1.— It has been said that the conjugation of Latin verbs is various 
only in the imperfect tenses, or those which are formed from the first stem. 
The perfect tenses of all verbs are made alike from the second and third 
stems ; and though each conjugation is commonly said to have a regular 
way of forming the second and third stems, this is not so universal as to 
justify a distinction of conjugations on this basis, or to dispense with 
long lists of exceptions to the so-called regular formation. 

332. — It will be seen, on examination of the following tables, that 
for the most part the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods are 
formed by attaching to the stem certain endings (or accidents) of 
which one (the latter) marks the person, number 9 and voice ; 
and the other (the former) marks the time of the action. 



333.— Tense Endings (Accidents of Time). 





INDICATIVE. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Oonj. 


Stem-vowel. 












5ENT. 1. 


»* 


none. 




a 


changed to e, 


2. 


e, 


u 








a, 


4. 


i, 


u 








a, 


3. 


eons, or jjl 9 


(1 








a. 


1. 


a, 


-l>a, 








~re f 


2. 


e* 


-l>a, 








-re, 


4. 


*> 


efca, 








-re, 


3. 


cons, or n 9 


£!>a, 








ere. 


JRE. 1. 


a, 


-1>, 










2. 


e, 


-t*, 










4. 


*, 


e (changed 


to 


a in 


1. 


sing.), 


3. 


cons, or a, 


e (changed 


to 


a in 


1. 


sing.). 



334r-336] person endings. 135 

Person Endings (Accidents of Voice, Person, dumber). 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

[OS] < 





For stems in a, e, i. 

Sing. 1. (I) ^T 

2. (Thou) -s, 

3. (He) t, 
Plur. 1. (We) -inns, 

2. (Ye) -tis, 

3. (They) nt, 


cons, or u. 

v j 


0. 
is. 
it. 

iiiins. 

itis. 

unt. 



»* e, i. cons, or n, 



— y 

i% or. 

-ris (re), eris (ere). 
-tmr, itnr. 
-mnr, imar. 
-mini, iniiral. 
ntnr, miliar. 

33d. — Obs. 1. The present (imperfect) tense, having no tense end- 
ing, takes in the first person o, or, instead of m, r, and the stem-vowel a 
of the first conjugation is then dropped. 

Obs. 2. In the present (imperfect) tense, verbs in i take unt, untur? 
instead of nt, ntur. 

Obs. 3. When the stem (of the verb or of a tense) ends in a, e, 1, the 
stewi-vowel is made long before any ending consisting of a whole 
syllable and beginning with a consonant ; and also before the single conso- 
nant s. This is indicated by a dash (-) before the endings which thus 
make the vowel long. The only exception to this occurs in the case of the 
verb do (da-), I give, which keeps a short before all endings which consist 
of a whole syllable : dabam, dabo, datits. 

Obs. 4. When an ending for either tense or person is added by the help 
of a connecting vowel, which is the case always in the third conjugation, 
the connecting vowel is always short. The only exception to this is that 
e before the tense-ending ba is always long : audiebam, regebam. 

Obs. 5. In the present imperative active the (-) means that the stem- 
vowels become long. 

S3 5. — In the present perfect subjunctive active the dash is placed 
before -s, -mus y -ti% because the vowel i is probably long in those persons. 
There is, however, some doubt on the matter. See Anthon's " Latin Pros- 
ody," p. 65. 

330.— In the following table, which presents the accidents of tense, 
voice, person, and number at one view, personal formations which are the 
same are not repeated in letters, but only indicated by ". The reason of 
placing the fourth conjugation before the third will be clearly seen. 



136 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



[337 



ACTIVE VOICE.— Imperfect Tenses {First Stem). 

S > o 



Indio. 
Mood. 






o 

Ml 



c5 



Sub j. 
Mood. 

a 






SI 

A 03 



Imper. 

Mood. 



A 



Conj. 


Verb 
Stem. 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 


1. 


Ama- 


2. 


Mone- 


4. 


Audi- 


3. 


Reg- 







Singular. 






Plural. 


Tense 




A 






A 


i 




\ 


f 




Stem. 


I© 


2 (thou) 


8 (he) 


l(we) 


2 (ye) 5 




(a)P 


-8 


t 


-mug 


-tis 




11 


ii 


ii 


a 


u 




u 


ii 


it 


it 


II 




u 


is 


it 


imus 


itis 


amaba- 


in 


-s 


t 


-mus 


-tis 


monel>a- 


it 


ii 


it 


ii 


it 


audi^t>a- 


ii 


u 


it 


it 


ii 


reg^oa- 


u 


ii 


ii 


it 


a 


am&b- 


O 


is 


it 


imus 


itis 


moneb- 


a 


ti 


it 


it 


ti 


audie- 


[a]m 


-S 


t 


-mus 


-tis 


rege- 


it 


ii 


ii 


tt 


tt 


ame- 


ti 


u 


a 


tt 


a 


monea- 


a 


.i 


a 


tt 


it 


audia- 


ii 


u 


it 


ti 


it 


rega- 


it 


it 


tt 


tt 


it 


amare- 


ii 


it 


it 


it 


it 


monere- 


a 


it 


it 


ti 


ii 


audlre- 


ii 


it 


u 


it 


ti 


regere- 


it 


u 

e 


ti 


it 


it 

-te 

tt 

ii 
ite 



3 (they) 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



137 



PASSIVE VOICE.— Imperfect Tenses (First Stem). 









L vo J 


^N 








Indic. 
Mood. 


Conj. 


Verb 
Stem. 


Tense i 
Stem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1(1) 5 


I (thou) 


3 (he) 


l(we) 


2 (ye) 


3 (they) 




1. 


Ama- 




»or 


-ris 


-tnr 


-mar 


-mial 


-atur 


5- 


2. 


Mone- 




II 


ii 


a 


ii 


ii 


it 




4. 


Audi- 




tc 


ti 


ii 


ii 


" i 


antar 


Ph 

v. 


3. 


Reg- 




II 


eris 


itur 


imar 


Imial 


tt 




1. 


Ama- 


amal>a- 


r 


-ris 


-tar 


-mar 


-mini 


-atar 


1- 

03 


2. 
4. 


Mone- 
Audi- 


monehar- 
audieh&- 


it 
it 




it 


it 
ti 


it 
i. 


tt 
ti 


1 fe 


3. 


Reg- 


regeba- 


M 


tt 


it 


it 


ii 


it 


r 


1. 


Ama- 


amab- 


or 


eris 


itur 


imar 


imial 


antar 


Future. 


2. 
4. 


Mone- 
Audi- 


moneb- 
audie- 


it 
[a]r 


« 

-ris 


-tar 


ii 
-mar 


-mini 


tt 
atar 


y 


3. 


Reg- 


rege- 


It 


a 


u 


it 


ii 


ti 


Btjbj. 
Mood. 




















u 


1. 


Ama- 


ame- 


u 


it 


ii 


u 


tt 


it 


Ph 
TO 


2. 


Mone- 


monea- 


II 


u 


it 


u 


CI 


it 


4. 


Audi- 


audia- 


tt 


it 


ii 


ii 


II 


it 




3. 


Reg- 


rega- 


u 


U 


ti 


ti 


ft 


it 


t-1 


1. 


Ama- 


amare- 


a 


u 


ii 


ii 


II 


it 


03 

Oh 


2. 


Mone- 


monere- 


u 


II 


a 


ti 


u 


it 


02 


4. 


Audi- 


audlre- 


u 


a 


CI 


ii 


II 


ti 




3. 


Reg- 


regere- 


a 


tt 


a 


ti 


ti 


tt 


Imper 
Mood 


r 1. 


Ama- 






-re 






-mini 




1 

U 


2. 


Mone- 
Audi- 
Reg- 






u 
II 

ere 






u 

u 
iminl 


L 







138 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



[339 



ACTIVE VOICE.— Imperfect Tenses {First Stem), 

s > o 



Impee. 
Mood. 



u 
£ 4 






Infin. 
Mood. 



Oh 



1. 


Ama- 




2. 


Mone- 




4. 


Audi- 




3. 


Reg- 




1. 


Ama- 


-re 


2. 


Mone- 


u 


4. 


Audi- 


u 


3. 


Reg- 


ere 



Singular. 
a^. 



1. 



2. 

-to 



JLtO 



3. 

-to 



ito 



Plural. 



2. 

-tote 

a 
a 

itote 



3. 

nto 

a 
UlltO 





Participle. 






Gerund. 


•4-3 


1. 


Ama- 


nt(i-) 




1. 


Ama- 


iido- 




2. 


Mone- 


u 




2. 


Mone- 


u 


6 i 

1 


4. 


Audi- 


tl 


\, 


Audi- 


entio~or 
iiiicio- 




3. 


Reg- 


ent(i-) 




[3. 


Reg- 


u 



ACTIVE VOICE —Perfect Tenses (Second Stem). 





2d 

Stem 


Tense. 
Stem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 

x ' 


IndicMood. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


B- 1 


Pres. perf. 


Rex- 




1 


istl 


it 


imus 


istis 


ei-ii24t f 


Past. perf. 


Rex- 


rexera- 


ni 


-s 


t 


-inns 


-tis 


mt 


Fut. perf. 


Rex- 


rexer- 


o 


is 


it 


innis 


itis 


int | 


Subj. Mood. 
















■ 


Pres. perf. 


Rex- 


rexeri- 


m 


-s 


t 


-inns 


-tis 


nt 


Past perf. 


Rex- 


rexisse- 


a 


it 


a 


a 


<< 


a 





















Infinitive Mood, Perfect, rexisse. 
Partic. Future, rectiiro-. 

Supines (3d stem), rectum, recta. 

Note. — The Second Stem of any verb may be substituted for rex-, above. 



,340] 








PASSIVE VOICE. 








139 


PASSIVE VOICE.— Imperfect Tenses {First Stem). 


i 




[OS] <- 


- Imper. 
Mood. 








Singular. 

A 


Plural. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


A 


1. 


Ama- 






-tor 


-tor 






ntor 




2. 


Mone- 






u 


u 






u 


£' 


4. 


Audi- 






ti 


(I 






untor 


i. 


3. 


Reg- 






Itor 


itor 






a 


INFIN. 

Mood. 








Participle. 




1. 


Ama- 


-rl 




o5 


fl. 


Ama- 


ndo- 


Imperfec 


2. 

4. 
3. 


Mone- 
Audi- 
Reg- 


a 

i 




> 


2. 
4. 
3. 


Mone- 
Audi- 
Reg- 


14 

endo- or 
-undo 

a 



PASSIVE VOICK-Perfect Tenses (Third Stem). 



'■ [ndic. Mood. 
j Pres. perf. 
Past perf. 
.' Future perf. 

3tjbj. Mood. 
Pres. perf. 

Past perf. 

i 



3d 
Stem. 

Recto- 



1 • 

SB 

o o 
_? * 

£ g 

M« 
I 5 ! 



Singular. 



Plural. 



1. 
Sum 
Eram 
Ero 



Sim 
Essem 



2. 


3. 


l. 


2. 


3. 


es 


est 


sumus 


estis 


sunt 


eras 


erat 


eramus 


eratis 


erant 


eris 


erit 


erimus 


eritis 


erunt 


sis 


sit 


simus 


sitis 


sint 


esses 


esset 


essemus 


essetis 


essent. 



Infinitive Mood, Perfect, rectus esse. Partic. Perfect, recto- 
Future, rectum In. 
Note. The Third Stem of any verb may be substituted for redo-, above. 



140 FORMATION OF STEMS. [341-346 

FORMATION OF THE SECOND AND THIRD 

STEMS. 

S4bl % — It has been seen that for the conjugation of a 
Latin verb it is necessary to know the three forms of its 
stem, which are involved in the present infinitive, the (pres- 
ent) perfect, and the supine. It is now necessary to speak 
of the way in which the second and third stems are made. 

34-2. — The second and third stems are formed from the root of the 
verb ; but this is not always identical with the first stem. In many verbs 
the root has been strengthened to make that form which expresses unfin- 
ished or continued action, L e., the first stem, and then the letter or letters 
so added will not usually appear in the second and third stems. Thus, the 
root rup- " break " has the nasal in inserted to make the first stem, thus 
becoming rump-, but the second and third stems are made directly from 
rup- (2. rup-, 3. rupto-). 

34:3. — The following are the chief ways in which verbal roots are 

strengthened to make the first or imperfect stem : 

(1.) The addition of the 

liquid (nasal) n, R. si-, " permit," 1. sin-, 2. slv-, 3. sito-. 

(2.) The insertion of the 

liquid (nasal) n or m, R. vie- " conquer," 1. vine-, 2. vie-, 3. victo-. 

R. rup- " break," 1. rump, 2. rup-, 3. rupto- 

(3.) The addition of sc-, R. no-, " learn," 1. nose-, 2. nov-, 3. noto-. 

(4.) The addition of t, R. flee-, "bend," 1. fleet-, 2. flex-, 3. flexo-. 

(5.) The lengthening of 

tb£ root vowel, R. due- "lead," 1. due-, 2. dux-, 3. ducto-. 

(6.) The doubling of the 

liquid 1, R. pel-, " push," 1. pell-, 2. pepul-, 3. pulso-. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
There are four modes in which the second (perfect active) stem 

is formed. 

34:4. — 1. By reduplication, or repetition of the initial consonant 
or consonants of the stem with the following vowel, or with e. Thus, curr- y 
" run," makes 2. cucurr- ; morde-, " bite," makes 2. momord- ; pare-, 
"spare," makes 2. peperc-. 

343* — After reduplication the stem- vowel is often changed: cad-, 
"fall," makes 2. cecid-; fall-, "deceive," makes 2. fefell-. 

340. — If the verb begins with sp or st, the reduplication has both con- 
sonants, but the 5 is dropped after it : sponde-, " promise," makes 2. spo- 
pond- ; sta- y " stand," makes 2. stet- (for spospond- and stestr-). 



347-357] FORMATION OF STEMS. 141 

34:7.— In compound verbs the syllable of reduplication is gen- 
erally dropped or mutilated ; but it is retained in the compounds of da-, 
" give ; " star-, " stand ; " disc-, " learn ; " pose-, " demand ; " and sometimes 
in those of curr-, u run." Thus, from tend-, " stretch," we have 2. tetend- ; 
but from contend-, * strive, " we have 2. contend- (reduplication dropped) ; 
and from pell-, " push," we have 2.pepul- ; but from repell-, " push back," 
we have 2. reppul-, or repul- (reduplication mutilated). But in circumsta-, 
"stand around," we have the reduplication retained, 2. circumstet-. The 
compounds of da-, with prefixes of one syllable, are of the third conjuga- 
tion, and change e of the reduplication into i : perd- (from per-, da-), 
" destroy," makes 2. perdid- (for perded-). 

34:8.-2. By lengthening the root-vowel: lego, "I read" 
(1. leg-), legi, (2. leg-). 

It is believed that these verbs had originally a reduplication, and that 
the long quantity is the result of a contraction of the reduplication and the 
root-syllable together. Thus, veni-, " come " (veven-, veen-), 2. ven-. 

349. — 3. By adding v or u to the root : amo, " I love " (1. arna-), 
amavi (2. amav-) ; moneo, "I advise" (1. mone-), monul (2. monu-). 

The letters v and u being originally the same, the consonant v was em- 
ployed when the ending was attached to a vowel, and the vowel u when the 
ending was attached to a consonant. 

350. — 4. By adding s to the root, with certain euphonic alterations 
of the preceding consonant: laedo, " I hurl " (1. laedr-), laesl (2. laes-), the 
d being omitted before s. 

These euphonic changes are as follows : 

351. — (1.) A palatal (c, g,qu, h,) generally unites with s, forming 
the double consonant x : 1. due-, 2. dux- ; 1. reg-, 2. 
rex- ; 1. coqu-, 2. cox-; 1. trah-, 2. trax-. 

352. — (2.) A lingual (d, t,) is generally dropped : 1. claud-, 2. 
clans- ; 1. mitt-, "send," 2. mis-. 

353. — (3.) B is changed to p : 1. scrlb-, 2. scrips- ; but is assimilated 
to s in : 1. jube-, 2. juss-. 

S54. — (4.) M is sometimes assimilated to s : 1. prem-, 2. press-; but 
is often strengthened by the insertion of p: 1. dim-, 
2. demps-. 

S55. — (5.) R is sometimes assimilated to s : 1. ger-, 2. gess-; and is 
sometimes dropped : 1. hauri-, 2. haus-. 

356.— A few verbs have the second stem the same as the first. 
These have probably lost a reduplication, or have absorbed u or v. 

357.— The supine (or third stem) is formed by adding turn 
(itum), or sum (to-, ito-, so-). 



142 



COMPOUND VERBS. 



[358-363 



358.— When turn (to-), is added, certain euphonic changes 
take place : 

(1.) A palatal (g, qu 5 h,) becomes c (the hard palatal, 
to conform to the order of t, the hard lingual ; see 6) : 
1. reg-, 3. recto- ; 1. trail-, 3. tracto-. 

S59 •— (2.) Vis changed to u: 1. solv-, 3. solato-; and sometimes 
unites with the preceding vowel : 1, move-, 3. moio-. 

300. — (3.) M is strengthened by the insertion of p: 1, dim-, 3. 
dempto-, 

301* — (4.) R is sometimes changed to s : 1. ger-, 3. gesto-. 

When sum (so-) is added, the same changes occur as in the second 
stem made by s. 

362. — The future participle active is commonly 
made by adding -turus or -surus, a, um (-turo or siiro-), 
to the root (342), and the same euphonic changes of letters 
occur as in the formation of the supine (or third stem). 
Thus, from trah-, scrib-, laed-, are formed the future par- 
ticiple tracturus, scripturus, laesurus. In a few verbs, 
however, the third stems of which vary from the regular 
formation, the future participles do not adopt these varia- 
tions. These verbs are: 

First stem, 
argu-, 
fru-, Dep. y 
agnosc-, 
juva-, 

mor(i-), Dep., 
nasc-, Dep. y 
ori-, Bep % , 
par(i-), 
ru- 
seca-, 
sona-, 



Third stem, 
argtito-, 
fructo-, fruito-, 


Fut. Participle, 
arguituro-. 
fruituro-. 


agnito-, 

juto-, 

mortuo-, 


agn5turo~. 
juvaturo-. 
morituro-. 


nato-, 


nascitiiro-. 


orto-, 


orituro-. 


parto-, 
ruto-, 


parittiro-. 
ruitiiro-. 


secto-, 


secaturo-. 


sonito-, 


sonaturo-. 



COMPOUND VERBS. 

303. — A compound verb is one made up of a root-verb 

and a prefivc: port-, "put;" depon-, "put down." But often the 
vowel of the root undergoes certain changes. 



» 



4-371] VOWEL CHANGES IN COMPOUND VEEBS. 143 

364:, — (1.) A is usually changed to i before one consonant, but 
sometimes into e : 

capio, to take, accipio. 
rapio, to seize, arripio. 
patior, to suffer, perpetior. 

Exceptions to this are : perago, to complete ; perplaceo, to please 
greatly ; and compounds of facio, with adverbs, as, satisfacio, to 
satisfy. 

365 . — (2.) A before two consonants is usually changed to e : 
carpo, to pluck, decerpo ; damno, to condemn, condemno. 

366* — (3.) A is sometimes changed to u: salto, to dance, insulto ; 
quatio, to shake, concutio. 

36 7* — (4.) E is changed to i before one consonant: egeo, to want, 
indigeo ; teneo, to hold, contineo. 
Exceptions to this are perlego, to read through; relego, to read 
again. 

368. — (5.) Ae is changed to £: caedo, to cut, occido; laedo, to hurt, 
iffido. 

369.— -(6.) Au is changed to 5 or u, but in one instance to e : plaudo, 
to clap, explodo ; claudo, to shut, includo ; audio, to hear, obedio. 



REGULAR FORMATION. 
370. — Most verbs of each of the conjugations form 
their second and third stems like the verbs conjugated as 
examples of them ; and, therefore, such fprrnations are called 
regular. 

First conj. : amo, amare, amavl, amatum (1. ama-, 2. amav-, 
8. amato-). 

Second conj.: moneo, monere, monul, monitum (1. mone-, 2. 
monu-, 3. monito-). 

Third conj. : rego, regere, rexi, rectum (1. reg-, 2. rex-, 3. 
recto-). 

Fourth conj. : audio, audire, audivl, auditum (1. audi-, 2. audiv-, 
13. audito-). 

IRREGULAR FORMATION. 
371* — The following lists contain the verbs in each 
conjugation which vary from this regular standard. The 
(present) perfect and supine are given, in accordance with 



14:4 FIRST CONJUGATION — IRREGULARITIES. [372-374 

the common practice, but the second stem may be found 
by omitting I in the perfect, and the third by changing 
urn into o. 

In these lists, 1, 2, 3, mean respectively the first, second, and third 
stem. A star (*), affixed either to the stem of a verb or to one of the 
numerals or tenses, implies that either the whole verb or the particular 
part so marked has the regular form as well as the irregular one. 

The letter R affixed either to the stem of the verb or to one of the 
numerals, implies that either the whole verb or the particular stem so marked 
is regular. 

The letter W affixed to any one of the numerals implies that the partic- 
ular form so marked is wanting, or not found in use. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 
372.— Regular formation* 



Examples : 



IRREGULARITIES. 

575.— I. The Perfect takes a reduplication: 

1. Do, dare, dedl, datum, to give. 

This verb hardly belongs to the first conjugation, since it keeps the 
vowel a short before all endings consisting of a whole syllable: 
dare, datur, dabam, darem, etc. ; and in composition with prefixes 
of one syllable it loses the a, and thus becomes of the third conju- 
gation, and then the reduplication takes i for e ; as, addo, addere y 
addidl, additum, " to add." 

2. Sto, stare, stetl(346), statum, to stand. 

The quantity of a in statum is matter of some doubt. It is best, how- 
ever, to consider it long, as it is found in the derived participles 
constdturus, praestdturus, etc. The compounds of sta- with pre- 
fixes of one syllable have i for e in the reduplication ; as, adsto, 
adstdre, adstiti. Dista-, 2. W., 3. W. 

574.— II. The Perfect has the root-vowel lengthened. 

1. Juvo, juvare, juvi, (jtitum), to assist. 

The future participle is juvaturus (362), but juturus is found in com- 
pounds. 

2. Lavo, lavare, lavl* lautum, lOtum* to wash. 
Lavo is sometimes of the third conjugation : lavo } lavere. 



-o> 


-are, 


-avi, 


-atum. 




Amo, 


amare, 


amavi, 


amatum, 


to love. 


Voco, 


vocare, 


vocavl, 


vocatum, 


to call. 


Spero, 


sperare, 


speravl, 


speratum, 


to hope. 



375-378] second conjugation — irregularities. 115 

375.— III. The Perfect takes m. 

1. Crepo, crepare, crepul, crepitum, to creak. 

increpa-*, chide ; discrepa-, 2*, 3. W., differ. 



2. 


Cubo, 


cubare, 


cubul, 


cubitum, 


to lie down. 


3. 


Domo, 


domare, 


domui, 


domitum, 


to tame. 


4. 


Eneco, 
neea-, R., 


enecare, 
kill. 


enecul*, 


enectum*, 


to kill. 


5. 


Frico, 


fricare, 


fricui, 


frictum*, 


to rub. 


6. 


Mico, 


micare, 


micui, 


3. W., 


to glitter. 



emica-, 2. emicu-, 3. R., glance forth ; dimica-, 2*, 3. R., fight. 

7. Plico, plicare, plicui*, plicitum*, to foldf 

Compounds from adjectives in plex (duplica-, triplica-, supplica-), 
and also replica-, R. 

8. Seco, secare, seem, sectum, to act. 
future participle, secaturus (362). 

9. Sono, sonare, sonul, sonitum, to sound. 
future participle sonatfirus. Sono is rarely of the third conjugation. 

Resona-, R., resound. 

10. Tono, tonare, tonui, (tonitum ?) to thunder. 

11. Yeto, . vetare, vetui, vetitum, to forbid. 

Pota-, drink, has 3. potum*. The participles potus, coenatus, pran- 
sus, are active in meaning, as if from deponent verbs. Jura-, swear, 
is sometimes deponent. 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 

376.— Regular formation. 

-eo, -ere, -ui, -itum. 

Examples : Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, to advise. 

Habeo, habere, habui, habitum, to have. 

Debeo, debere, debui, debitum, to owe. 

IRREGULARITIES. 
577.— I- The Perfect takes a reduplication. 

1. Mordeo, mordere, momordi, morsum, to bite. 

2. Pendeo, pendere, pependi, pensum, to hang. 

3. Spondeo, spondere, spopondl (346), sponsum, to promise. 

4. Tondeo, tondere, totondi, tonsum, to shear. 

378.— II. {a.) The Perfect has the root-vowel length- 
ened. 

1. Caveo, cavere, cavi, cautum, to beware. 

2. Faveo, favere, favi, fautum, to favor. 

3. Foveo, fovere, fovl, fotum, to cherish. 

7 



14:6 SECOND CONJUGATION — IKREGULAKITIES. [379-381 



4. Moveo, 
6. Paveo, 
6. Sedeo, 



movere, 
pavere, 
sedere, 



movi, 
pavl, 
sedi, 



motum, 
3. W., 
sessum, 



to move (trans). 
to quake, 
to sit. 



Compounds with prefixes of one syllable change e of the stem to i ; as, 
asside-, praeside-, etc. 



7. Video, 

8. Voveo 



videre, 
vovere, 



vidi, 
vovi, 



visum. 



to see. 
to vow. 



1. Conniveo, connlvere, connivi (connixi), 3. W., 

2. Ferveo, fervere, fervi (ferbui), 3. W., 



langui, 
liqui (licul), 
prandi, 
stridL 



3. W., 
3. W., 
pransum, 
3. W., 



to be languid, 
to be clear, 
to dine, 
to screech. 



vOtum, 

379.— (b.) The Perfect takes I only. 

to wink, 
to boil, glow. 

This verb is sometimes found in the third conjugation: l.ferv-. 

3, Laugueo, languere, 

4. Liqueo, liquere, 
6. Prandeo, prandere, 
6. Strideo, stridere, 

Also found in the third conj. : 1. stridr-. 

380.— III. The Perfect takes vl. 

1. Aboleo, abolere, abolevi, 
From the unused ole-, grow. 

2. Cieo, ciere, clvl, citum, to stir up. 

There is a kindred verb of conj. 4 : cio y cire, clvl, citum. This is 
most common in compounds. 

3. Deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to blot out. 

4. Fleo, flere, flevi, flStum, to weep. 

5. Impleo, implere, implevi, impletum, to fill. 

So also other compounds of pie-, which is not used. 



abolitum, to destroy. 



6. Neo, 



nere, 



nevT, 

7. Vieo, viere, (vievi?) 

381.— W. The Perfect takes si. 

1. Algeo, algere, alsi, 

2. Ardeo, ardere, arsl, 

3. Augeo, augere, auxl, 

4. Frlgeo, frigere, frixi? 

5. Fulgeo, fulgere, fulsl, 



netum, 
vietum, 

3. W., 
arsum, 
auctum, 
3. W., 
3. W.. 



to spin, 
to plait. 

to be cold, 
to be on fire, 
to increase, 
to be cold, 
to shine. 



This verb is sometimes found in the third conj.: 1. fulg- 



382-385] second conjugation — irregularities. 1-17 



6. Haereo, 


haerere, 


haesi, 


haesum, 


to stick. 


7. Indulgeo, 


indulgere, 


indulsl, 


indultum, 


to indulge. 


8. Jubeo, 


jubere, 


jussi, 


jussum, 


to order. 


9. Lueeo, 


Ulcere, 


hm, 


3. W., 


to shine. 


10. Lugeo, 


lugere, 


hm, 


3. W., 


to grieve. 


11. Maneo, 


manere, 


mansl, 


mansum, 


to remain. 


12. Mulceo, 


niulcere, 


mulsi, 


mulsum, 


to soothe. 


Compounds have also : 3. 


mulcto-. 






13. Mulgeo, 


mulgere, 


mulsi, 


mulsum, 


to milk. 


14. Rideo, 


ridere, 


rlsi, 


risum, 


to laugh. 


15. Sorbeo, 


sorb ere, 


sorpsi*, 


sorptum, 


to swallow 


16. Suadeo, 


suadere, 


suasi, 


suasum, 


to advise. 


17. Tergeo, 


tergere, 


tersi, 


tersum, 


to wipe. 


Also sometimes of conj. 3 


: 1. terg-. 






18. Torqueo, 


torquere, 


torsi, 


tortum, 


to twist. 


19. Turgeo, 


turgere, 


tursT, 


3. W., 


to swell. 


20. Urgeo, 


urgere, 


ursi, 


3. W., 


to press. 


382.— The following are 


regular in 


the perfect, but 


irregular in the 




supines (third stem) : 






1. Censeo, 


censere, 


censul, 


censum, 


to reckon. 




Also, 3. censlto-. 






2. Doceo, 


docere, 


docul, 


doctum, 


to teach. 


3. Misceo, 


miscere, 


miscuT, 


mixtum (mistum), to mix. 


4. Teneo, 


tenere, 


tenui, 


tentum, 


to hold. 


5. Torreo, 


torrere, 


torrul, 


tostum, 


to roast. 


383. — Irregular Deponents : 






1. Fateor, 


fateri, 




fassus, 


to confess. 


2. Medeor, 


mederl, 




3. W., 


to cure. 


3. Reor, 


rerl, 




ratus, 


to think. 


4. Tueor, 


tueri, 




tutus*, 


to protect. 



384L % — Many verbs of the second conjugation are regular in the perfect, 
but have no third stem. Such are : calle-, be skilled ; cande-, shine ; ege-, 
want ; fiore-, bloom ; horre-, shudder ; late-, lie hid ; nite-, shine ; palle-, 
be pale;/?ate-, be open; rige-, be stiff; site-, be silent; stude-, study; 
time-, fear ; heme-, swell ; vige-, flourish. 

383. — Many more verbs of the second conjugation have only the first 
stem. Such are : albe-, be white ; ave- y desire ; cane-, be hoary ; hebe-, 
be blunt ; maere-, be sad ; polle-, be powerful ; renide-, shine ; squdle-, be 
filthy ; vege- y be active. 



148 irregularities. [386, 387 

THIRD CONJUGATION. 

386*— Regular Formation. 

-o, -ere, -si, -turn. 

Examples : Rego, regere, rexl, rectum, to rule. 

Carpo, carpere, carpsi, carptum, to pluck. 

Duco, ducere, duxl, ductum, to lead. 

Since even of these so-called regular verbs the s of the perfect ending 
often changes the consonant of the stem (see 351-355), it will be best to 
give all the simple verbs of this conjugation which have a second or third 
stem, arranged according to the formation of the second stem. 

IRREGULARITIES. 

387* — I. The Perfect takes a reduplication (see 347 for 
the reduplication in compounds) : 

1. Addo, addere, addidi, additum, to add. 
(347), 

2. Cado, cadere, cecidi, casum, to fall. 

3. Caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum, to fell. 

Compounds have 3. -ciso- ; as, conoid-, 2. concid-, 3. conciso-. 

4. Cano, canere, cecinl, (cantum ?) to sing. 

The compounds concin-, occin-, praecin-, have 2. -u\ without supine ; 
other compounds are without perfect and supine. 

5. Curro, currere, cucurri, cursum, to run. 

6. Disco, discere, didicT, 3. W., to learn. 
'7. Fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive. 
8. Pango, pangere, pepigi, pactum, to bargain. 

The deponent paciscor is more commonly used in this sense. See 
399, 18. 

O.Parco, parcere, { jg£« \ { J™, } tospare. 

10. Pario, parere, peperi, partum, to bring forth. 

Future participle is pariturus (362). Compounds are of Conj. IV. 
(403, 404). 

11. Pello, pellere, pepull, pulsum, to push. 

12. Pendo, pendere, pependi, pensum, to weigh. 

13. Posco, poscere, poposci, 3. W., to demand. 

14. Pungo, pungere, pupugl, punctum, to prick. 

Compounds have the perfect in -punxi. 

15. Tango, tangere, tetigl, tactum, to touch. 

16. Tendo, tendere, tetendi, j ^turn) \ fe stretch - 



389] 



THIRD CONJUGATION IRREGULARITIES. 



149 



Compounds, except ostend- and detend- y generally have -tentum. 
However, ostento- is also found, particularly when used as a neuter 
noun. 

1*7. Tundo, tundere, tutudi, tusum (tunsum), to beat. 

888.— II. (a) The Perfect has the root-vowel lengthened. 

1. Ago, agere, egi, actum, to drive. 

So the compounds cireumago and perago. But other compounds 
change ag~ of the first stem to ig- ; as redig- f 2. redeg-, 3. re- 
dactor Cogo (for co-ago), makes coegi, coactum, and dego y dtgi y 
3. W. 



2. Capio, 


capere, 


cepi, 


captum, 


to take, 


3. Edo, 


edere, 


edi, 


esum, 


to eat 


4. Emo, 


emere, 


emi, 


emptum, 


to buy. 



This verb originally meant " to take," and this meaning is found in 
all its compounds. If these are of three syllables in the present 
they follow the simple verb, but (except coemo) change e of the first 
stem to i ; thus : redim- y 2. redem- y 3. redempto-. For the dissyl- 
labic compounds of em-, see 394, 8. 



5. Facio, 


facere, 


feci, 


factum, 


to make. 


6. Fodio, 


fodere, 


fodi, 


fossum, 


to dig. 


7. Frango, 


frangere, 


fregl, 


fractum, 


to break. 


8. Fugio, 


fugere, 


ftgi, 


fugitum, 


to flee. 


9. Fundo, 


fundere, 


fudl, 


fiisum, 


to pour. 


10. Jacio, 


jacere, 


jeci, 


j actum, 


to throw. 


11. Lego, 


legere, 


legi, 


lectum, 


to read. 



So the compounds (collig- 
understand, and neglig- 
glex-. 



selig- y etc.), but dllig- y love, intellig-, 
neglect, make 2. dxlex- y intettex-, ne- 



12. Linquo, linquere, liqui, 3. W., 

The third stem is found in compounds : relicto-. 



to leave. 



13. Kumpo, 

14. Scabo, 


rumpere, 
scabere, 


rupi, 
scabi, 


ruptum, 
3. W., 


to burst, 
to scratch. 


15. Vinco, 


vincere, 


VlCl, 


victum, 


to conquer, 



(b.) The Perfect takes I only. 

S89. — (1.) Stems ending in u or v. 

1. Acuo, acuere, acui, 

2. Arguo, arguere, argui, 

3. Batuo, batuere, batui, 

4. Congruo, congruere, congrul, 



aciitum, 


to sharpen. 


argiitum, 


to charge. 


3. W., 


to beat. 


3. W., 


to agree. 



150 



THIRD CONJUGATION— IRREGULARITIES. 



[390 



5. Exuo, exuere, 

8. Fervb (see 379, 2). 



exiri, 



extitum, 



to strip off. 



1. 


Induo, 


induere, 


indui, 


indtitum, 


to put on. 


8. 


Innuo, 


innuere, 


innui, 


3. W., 


to give a nod. 


9. 


Imbuo, 


imbuere, 


imbui, 


imbutum, 


to imbue. 


10. 


Luo, 


luere, 


lui, 


3. W., 


to wash. 






Compound 


s have a third stem : ablutum. 




11. 


Metuo, 


metuere, 


metui, 


3. W., 


to fear. 


12. 


Minuo, 


minuere, 


mmul, 


minutum, 


to lessen. 


13. 


Pluo, 


pluere, 


plul (pliivl), 


3. W., 


to rain. 


14. 


Ruo, 


ruere, 


rui, 


rutum, 


to fall, rush. 






Fut. partic. ruiturus 


. (362.) 




15. 


Solvo, 


solvere, 


solvl, 


soliitum, 


to loosen. 


16. 


Spuo, 


spuere, 


spin, 


sputum, 


to spit. 


17. 


Statuo, 


statuere, 


statui, 


stattitum, 


to set up. 


18. 


Sternuo, 


sternuere, 


sternui, 


3. W., 


to sneeze. 


19. 


Suo, 


suere, 


SUl, 


siitum, 


to sew. 


20. 


Tribuo, 


tribuere, 


tribui, 


tribiitum, 


to assign. 


21. 


Volvo, 


volvere, 


volvi, 


voliitum, 


to roll. 



390* — (2.) Stems ending in other Consonants. 

1. Accendo, accendere, accendi, accensum, to light up. 

So other compounds of the obsolete cando : incendo, etc. 

2. Bibo, bibere, bibi, 3. W, to drink. 

3. Cudo, cudere, ciidi, ctisum, to hammer. 

4. Defendo, defendere, defend!, defertsum, to ward off. 

So other compounds of the obsolete fendo • offendo, etc. 



5. 


Dego(388,l 


),degere, 


degi, 


3. W., 


to dwell. 


6. 


Findo, 


findere, 


fidi, 


fissum, 


to cleave. 


n. 


Frendo, 


frendere, 


2. W., 


fressum, 


to gnash. 


8. 


Ico, 


icere, 


1C1, 


ictum, 


to strike. 


9. 


Lambo, 


lamb ere, 


Iambi, 


3. W., 


to lick. 


10. 


Mando, 


mandere, 


mandl, 


mansum, 


to chew. 


11. 


Pando, 


pandere, 


pandl, 


passum (pan- 
sum), 


to spread. 


12. 


Percello 
(391, 8). 


percellere, 


perculi, 


perculsum, 


to strike. 


13. 


Prehendo, 


prehendere, prehendi, 


prehensum, 


to seize. 


14. 


Psallo, 


psallere, 


psalll, 


3.W., 


to play {music), 



391] 



THIRD CONJUGATION IEEEGULAEITIES. 



151 



15. 


Scando, 


scandere, 


scandi, 


scansum, 


to climb. 


16. 


Scindo, 


scindere, 


scidl, 


scissum, 


to cut. 


17. 


Sido, 


sidere, 


sldl, 


3. W., 


to settle. 



(Sedi, sessum, from sedeo, are more common.) 

18. Strido (see 379, 6). 

19. Sisto, sistere, stiti (rare), statum, to set. 

20. Tollo, tollere, sustuti, sublatum, to lift up. 

Tull (for tetuli) and latum (properly tlatum) are taken by fero : 
so that tollo borrows sustuli, sublatum, from its compound 
sustollo. 



21. 


Velio, 


vellere, 


velli (vulsi), 


vulsum, 


to pluck. 


22. 


Verro, 


verrere, 


verri, 


versum, 


to sweep. 


23. 


Verto, 


vertere, 


verti, 


versum, 


to* turn. 



Compounds with de, prae, re, are commonly deponent in the im- 
perfect tenses. 



24. Vlso, 



visere, 



visi, 



3. W. 



to visit. 



m. The Perfect takes ui or vl 

SOI. — (a.) With ui added. 

1. Alo, alere, aim, 

2. Colo, colere, coluT, 

3. Compesco, compescere, compescui, 

4. Concino concinere, concinui, 
(see 387, 4). 

5. -Cumbo, -cumbere, -cubui, 



alitum (altum), to nourish. 



cultum, 
3. W., 



3. W., 

-cubitum, 
Only used in compounds, incumb-, discumb-, etc. 



to till. 

to restrain. 

to sing together 

\ 



to lie down. 

See 375, 2. 

to knead, 
to lure forth. 

For other compounds of the obsolete lacio, see 394, 2. 
8. Excello excellere, excellui, excelsus (adj.), to excel. 



6. Depso, 

7. Elicio, 



depsere, 
elicere. 



depsul, 
elicui, 



depstum, 
elicitum, 





(390, 12). 










9. 


Fremo, 


fremere, 


fremui, 


fremitum, 


to roar. 


10. 


Furo, 


furere, 


furul, 


3. W., 


to rage. 


11. 


Gemo, 


gemere, 


gemul, 


gemitum, 


to groan. 


12. 


Gigno, 


gignere, 


genui, 


geuitum, 


to beget. 


13. 


Meto, 


metere, 


messul, 


messum, 


to mow. 


14. 


Molo, 


molere, 


molul, 


molitum, 


to grind. 


15. 


Necto, 


nectere, 


nexui (nexl), 


nexum, 


to link together. 



152 THIRD CONJUGATION IRREGULARITIES. [392, 393 



16. Occulo, 


occulere, 


occului, 


occultum, 


to hide. 


11. Pinso, 


pinsere, 


pinsui (pinsij. 


pinsum(pistum,fo pound. 








or pinsitum) 


> 


18. Pono, 


ponere, 


posul, 


positum, 


to place. 


19. Rapio, 


rapere, 


rapui, 


raptum, 


to snatch. 


20. Sero, 


serere, 


serul, 


sertum, 


to connect. 


21. Sterto, 


stertere, 


stertui, 


3. W., 


to snore. 


22. Strepo, 


strepere, 


strepui, 


strepitum, 


to make a din. 


23. Texo, 


texere, 


texul, 


textum, 


to weave. 


24. Tremo, 


tremere, 


tremul, 


3.W., 


to tremble. 


25. Volo, 


velle, 


volui, 


3. W., 


to wish. 




So the compounds of volo. 


See 418, 419. 




26. Vomo, 


vomere, 


vomui, 


vomitum, 


to vomit. 


392.— (b.) 


With vi added. 






1. Cemo, 


cernere, 


crevi, 


crgtum, 


to distinguish. 


2. Cresco, 


crescere, 


crevi, 


cretum, 


to grow. 


3. Inveterasco, inveterascere, inveteravi, 


inveteratum, 


to grow old in. 


4. Nosco, 


noscere, 


novi, 


notum, 


to learn. 


The compounds agnosco 


and cognosco have agnitum, cognitum. (362.) 


5. Pasco, 


pascere, 


pavi, 


pastum, 


to feed. 


6. Sero, 


serere, 


sevi, 


satum, 


to sow. 


1. Sperno, 


spernere, 


sprevi, 


spretum, 


to spurn. 


8. Sterno, 


sternere, 


stravi, 


stratum, 


to strew. 


9. Suesco, 


suescere, 


suevl, 


suetum, 


to be accustomed. 


393.— (c.) 


The following have IvL 






1. Arcesso, 


arcessere, 


arcessM, 


arcessitum, 


to summon. 


2. Capesso, 


capessere, 


capesslvi, 


capessitum, 


to lay hold of. 


3. Cupio, 


cupere, 


cupivi, 


cupitum, 


to desire. 


4. Facesso, 


facessere, 


facessivl, 
Also 2. facess 


facessltum, 


to cause. 


6. Incesso, 


incessere, 


incesslvl, 
Also 2. incest 


incessitum, 


to attack. 


6. Lacesso, 


lacessere, 


lacessivi, 


lacessltum, 


to provoke. 


1. Lino, 


linere, 


livi (levi), 


litum, 


to smear. 


8. Peto, 


petere, 


petlvl, 


petltum, 


to go to, aim at. 



394] 



THIRD CONJUGATION — IRREGULARITIES, 



153 



9. Quaero, 

10. Rudo, 

11. Sapio, 

12. Sino, 

13. Tero, 



quaerere, quaeslvf, quaesitum, 

rudere, rudivi, rudltum, 

sapere, saplvl (sapui), 3. W., 



smere, 
terere, 



sivi, 
trivl, 



situm, 
tritum, 



394.— IV. The Perfect takes si. 

1. Affligo, affllgere, affiixl, afflictum, 



to seek, 

to bray, 

to taste ; be wise. 

to permit, 

to rub. 



to strike against 



So the other compounds of the obsolete fllgo, except profligo, which is 
of Conj. I. 

2. Allicio, allicere, allexi, allectum, to allure. 

So the other compounds of the obsolete lacio, except elicio (391, 1). 



3. 


Ango, 


angere r 


anxi, 


(anctum), 


to throttle. 


4. 


Carpo, 


carpere, 


carpsl, 


carptum, 


to pluck. 


5. 


Cedo, 


cedere, 


cessl, 


cessum, 


to yield. 


6. 


Cingo, 


cingere, 


cinxl, 


cinctum, 


to gird. - 


7. 


Claudo, 


claudere, 


clausi, 


clausum, 


to shut. 


8. 


Como, 


comere, 


compsi, 


comptum, 


to adorn. 



So the other dissyllabic compounds of emo, demo, sumo, etc. (388, 4). 
9. Conspicio, conspicere, conspexl, conspectum, to behold. 
So the other compounds of the obsolete specio. 



10. 


Coquo, 


coquere, coxi, 


coctum, 


to cook. 


11. 


Dico, 


dlcere, dixi, 


dictum, . 


to say. 


12. 


Diligo, 


dlligere, dilexl, 
So intelligo, negligo. 


dllectum, 
See 388, 11. 


to love. 


13. 


Divido, 


dividere, divisl, 


divlsum, 


to divide. 


14, 


Duco, 


diicere, duxl, 


ductum, 


to lead. 


15. 


Emungo, 


emungere, emunxl, 


emunctum, 


to wipe. 


16. 


Evado, 


evadere, evasi, 


evasum, 


to go out. 






So other compounds of vado. 




17. 


FTgo, 


ffgere, fixi, 


fixum, 


to fix. 


18. 


Fingo, 


fingere, finxi, 


fie turn, 


to form. 


19. 


Flecto, 
>7* 


flectere, flexi, 


flexum, 


to bend. 



154 



THIRD CONJUGATION — IRREGULARITIES. 



[394 



20. Fluo, 


fluere, 


fluxi, 


(fluxus), 


to flow. 


21. Frlgo, 


frlgere, 


frixi, 


frictum, 


to parch. 


22. Fulgo, see 


381, 5. 








23. Gero, 


gerere, 


gessi, 


gestum, 


to carry on. 


24. Jungo, 


jungere, 


junxl, 


junctum, 


to join. 


25. Laedo, 


laedere, 


laesl, 


laesum, 


to hurt. 


26. Ludo, 


liidere, 


lusi, 


hisum, 


to play. 


27. Lingo, 


lingere, 


linxi, 


linctum, 


to lick. 


28. Mergo, 


mergere, 


mersT, 


mersum, 


to sink. 


29. Mitto, 


mittere, 


mis!, 


missum, 


to send. 


30. Ningo, 


ningere, 


ninxl, 


3. W., 


to snoio. 


31. Nubo, 


niibere, 


nupsi, 


nuptum, 


to veil, marry. 


32. Pango, 


pangere, 


panxi(pegi), 


panctum, 


to fasten. 


(387, 8), 




(pactum), 




33. Pecto, 


pectere, 


pexl (pexui), 


pexum, 


to comb. 


34. Plecto, 


plectere, 


plexi (plexul) 


plexum, 


to plait. 


35. Pingo, 


pingere, 


pinxi, 


pictum, 


to paint. 


36. Plango, 


plangere, 


planxl, 


planctum, 


to beat the breast 


37. Plaudo, 


plaudere, 


plausi, 


plausum, 


to clap. 


38. Premo, 


premere, 


press!, 


pressum, 


to press. 


39. Quatio, 


quatere, 


2W., 


quassum, 


to shake. 


The compounds are like concutic 


, concussly concussum. 


40. Rado, 


radere, 


rasl, 


rasum, 


to scrape. 


41. Rego, 


regere, 


rexl, 


rectum, 


to ride. 


42. Repo, 


repere, 


repsi, 


rep turn, 


to creep. 


43. Rodo, 


rodere, 


rosi, 


rosum, 


to gnaw. 


44. Scalpo, 


scalpere, 


scalps!, 


scalptum, 


to scrape. 


45. Scribo, 


scribere, 


scrips!, 


scriptum, 


to write. 


46. Sculpo, 


sculpere, 


sculps!, 


sculptum, 


to carve. 


47. Serpo, 


serpere, 


serpsi, 


serptum, 


to crawl. 


48. Spargo, 


spargere, 


spars!, 


sparsum, 


to scatter. 


49. Stinguo, 


stinguere, 


stinx!, 


stinctum, 


to extinguish. 


Compounds are chiefly used, exstingu-, distingu-. 


50. Stringo, 


stringere, 


strinxl, 


strictum, 


to graze. 


51. Struo, 


struere, 


strux!, 


structum, 


to heap up. 


52. Sugo, 


siigere, 


SUXl, 


suctum, 


to suck. 


53. Tego, 


tegere, 


tex!, 


tectum, 


to cover. 



54. Contemno, contemnere, contemps!, contemptum, to despise. 

55. Tergo (see 381, 17). 



56. Tingo, tingere, tinx!, 



tinctum, 



to dye. 






395-398] THIRD CONJUGATION — INCEPTIVE VERBS. 155 



5T. 


Traho, 


trahere, 


traxi, 


tractum, 


to draw. 


58. 


Trudo, 


trudere, 


trusi, 


trusum, 


to thrust. 


59. 


Veho, 


vehere, 


vexi, 


vectum, 


to carry. 


60. 


Vivo, 


vivere, 


vixi, 


victum, 


to live. 


61. 


Ungo, 


ungere, 


unxi, 


unctum, 


to anoint. 


62. 


Uro, 


tirere, 


USSl, 


ustum, 


to burn. 



395.— Inceptives. 

There are many verbs of this conjugation which are called incentives 
or inchoatives, because they denote the beginning of an action. Such 
verbs end in sco (sc-). Of course, they have in strictness no perfect 
tenses, but some take the perfect, and a few also the supine, of the simple 
verbs from which they come. Inceptives are called verbal, if they are 
derived from verbs, and nominal if they come from nouns or adjectives. 



396. — Examples of Verbal Inceptives 

1. Acesco (ace-), acul, 3. W., 

2. Calesco (cale-), calui, 3. W., 

3. Floresco (flore-), florui, 3. W., 

4. Madesco (made-), madui, 3. W., 

5. Abolesco (ole-), • abolevi, abolitum, 



Adolesc- has 3. adulto- ; exolesc^, 3. exoleto- 

6. Concupisco (cupi-), concupivT, concupltum, 
1. Obdormisco (dormi-),obdormivi, obdormitum 
8. Revivisco (viv-), revixi, 3. W., 



to grow sour, 
to grow warm, 
to grow blooming, 
to grow moist, 
to grow out of use. 

obsolesc-, 3. obsolete- 



to grow desirous, 
to grow sleepy, 
to grow lively. 



397. — Examples of Nominal Inceptives, most without perfect 
or supine : 

Aegresco (aegro-), groio sick ; dltesco (divet-), grow rich ; grandesco 
(grandi-), grow large ; mitesco (miti-), grow mild ; pinguesco (pin- 
gui-), grow fat. 

398. — The following have a perfect in ?«, as if formed from simple 
verbs of Conjugation II : 

Crebresco (crebro-), crebui, grow frequent ; diiresco (duro-), grow 
hard ; evanesco (vano-), vanish ; innotesco (noto-), become known ; 
macresco (macro-), grow lean ; maturesco (maturo-) grow ripe ; ni- 
gresco (nigro-) grow black ; obmutesco (mtito-), grow dumb ; ob- 
surdesco (surdo-), grow deaf ; recrudesce (crude—), grow raw ; 
vllesco (vili-), grow worthless. 



156 THIRD CONJUGATION — DEPONENT VERBS. [399, 400 



3.99.— 


Deponent Verbs. 




1. Amplector, 


amplecti, 


amplexus, 


to embrace. 


2. Apiscor, 


apiscl, 


aptus, 


to obtain. 


More commonly, adipiscor, adepius. 




3. Comminiscor, 


comminisci, 


commentus, 


to invent. 


4. Defetiscor, 


defetisci, 


defessus, 


to grow weary. 


5. Expergiscor, 


expergisci, 


experrectus, 


to awake. 


6. Fruor, 


frul, 


fructus (fruitus), 


to enjoy: 


7. Fungor, 


fungi, 


functus, 


to discharge. 


8. Gradior, 


gradi, 


gressus, 


to walk. 


9. Irascor, 


Irasci, 


Iratus, 


to be angry. 


10. Labor, 


labi, 


lapsus, 


to slip. 


11. Liquor, 


liqui, 


(liquefactus), 


to melt. 


12. Loquor, 


loqui, 


locutus, 


to speak. 


13. Morior, 


mori(moriri, 
rare\ 


mortuus, 


to die. 


Future participle, 


moriturus. (362.) 




14. Nanciscor, 


nancisci. 


nactus(nanctus), 


to gain. 


15. Nascor, 


nasci, 


natus, 


to be born. 


Future participle, 


nasciturus, (362.) 




16. Nitor, 


niti, 


nisus (nixus), 


to strain. 


11, Obliviscor, 


oblivisci, 


oblltiis, 


to forget. 


18. Paciscor 


pScisci, 


pactus, 


to bargain. 


(387, 8), 








19. Patior, 


pati, 


passus, 


to suffer. 


20. Proficiscor, 


proficisci, 


profectus, 


to set out. 


21. Queror, 


queri, 


questus, 


to complain. 


22. Reminiscor, 


reminisci, 


3. W., 


to remember. 


23. Ringor, 


ringl, 


rictus, 


to show the teeth. 


24. Sequor, 


sequl, 


secutus, 


to follow. 


25. Ulciscor, 


ulciscl, 


ultus, 


to avenge. 


26. Utor, 


Utl, 


usus, 


to use. 


27. Vescor, 


vesci, 


3. W., 


to eat. 



400. 

-io, 

Examples : Audio, 
Lenio, 
Pumo, 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Regular Formation. 

-Ire, -Ivi, -Itum. 

audlre, audlvi, audltum, 
lenlre, lenlvi, lenltum, 
punire, punivl, punltum, 



to hear, 
to soften, 
to punish. 



401-407] FOURTH CONJUGATION IRREGULARITIES. 157 



IRREGULARITIES. 

dOl.— The Perfect takes a reduplication* 

None in this conjugation. 

402.— II. (a) The Perfect has the root-vowel lengthened. 

1. Venio, venire, veni, ventum, to come, 

403.— (b) The Perfect has I alone. 

1. Comperio, compenre, comperi, compertum, to ascertain. 

2. Reperio, reperire, reperi, repertum, to find. 

(See 387, 10.) 



404.— HI. The Perfect takes ul. 



1. Amicio, 

2. Aperio, 

3. Operio, 

4. Salio, 



amicire, 
aperire, 
operire, 
salire, 



(amicul ?) amictum, 

aperui, apertum, 

operui, opertum, 

salui (salil), saltum, 



405.— TV. The Perfect takes si. 

1. Farcio, farcire, farsi, fartum, 

fulclre, falsi, fultum, 

haurire, hausi, haustum, 



2. Fulcio, 

3. Haurio, 



to clothe, 
to open, 
to cover, 
to leap. 



to stuff, 
to prop, 
to draw (water , etc.) 



Future participle, hausturus and hausurus. 



4. Sancio, 

5. Sarcio, 

6. Sentio, 

7. Sepio, 

8. Vincio, 



sancire, 

sarcire, 

sentire, 

sepire, 

vinclre, 



sanxi, 
sarsi, 
sensi, 
sepsi, 
vinxi, 



sanctum*, 

sartum, 

sensum, 

septum, 

vinctum, 



to halloio. 
to patch, 
to feel, 
to hedge in. 
to bind. 



406.— The Supine is irregular in— 

1. Sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, sepultum, to bury. 

2.Eo(413), ire, Hi, itum, logo. 

3. Queo (416), quire, qnlvi, qnitum, to be able. 

4.Nequeo, nequire, nequivi, nequitum, to be unable. 

407.— Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation have no second or third 
stem; particularly desideratives (589), (except ?W-, 2. W., 3. esurito-, 
" be hun-ry ; " nupiuri-, R, " desire to marry ; " and parlum-, 2. R., 3. W., 
"be in labour;") and a few others, as: /«*-, strike; ganm-, bark; sin- 
gulti-, sigh, etc. 



158 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



[408-411 





Deponent 


Verbs* 




4:08. — I. Regular: 






1. Blandior, 


blandirl, 


blanditus, 


to flatter. 


2. Largior, 


larglri, 


largltus, 


to bestow 


3. Mentior, 


mentlri, 


mentltus, 


to lie. 


4. Molior, 


mollri, 


molitus, 


to strive. 


5. Partior, 


partiri, 


partitus, 


to share. 


6. Potior, 


potlri, 


potltus, 


to gain. 



The forms potitur, potimur, poterer, etc., sometimes occur as if 
from stem pot- (Conj. III.). 



7. Sortior, 


sortiri, 


sortltus, 


to draw lots. 


4:09* — II. Irregular: 






1. Assentior, 


assentiri, 


assensus, 


to assent. 


2. Experior, 


experiri, 


expertus, 


to try. 


3. MStior, 


metM, 


mensus, 


to measure. 


4. Opperior, 


opperiri, 


oppertus*, 


to wait for. 


5. Ordior, 


ordiri, 


orsus, 


to begin. 


6. Orior, 


orlri, 


ortus, 


to arise. 



Future participle, oriturus (362). The forms oreris, oritur, etc., as 
if from a stem, or- (Conj. III.), are usual ; also, orerer for orlrer. 
So, also, the compounds, except adorior, which is always of 
Conj. IV. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

410. — Irregular Verbs are those in which some of the secondary 
parts are not formed from the primary, according to the rules for regular 
verbs. 

The irregular verbs are six ; namely, sum, eo, queo, volo, fero, and flo. 
Their compounds are irregular also. 

Sum has been inflected already (277). After the same manner are inflect- 
ed its compounds, ad-, ab-, de-, inter-, oh-, pro?-, sub-, super-sum; as, 
adsum, adesse, adfui, etc. Insum wants the perfect. 



411. — 1. PrSsum " to do good,'' inserts d where the simple verb be- 
gins with e. Really, the original prefix was prod-, the d of which was 
omitted before a consonant. It is inflected thus : 



Prosum, 



prodesse, 



profui, to do good. 



412] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



159 



INDICATIVE MOOD, 
Pr. PrCsum, prodes, prodest; prosumus, prodestis, prosunt. 

Imp. Prod-eram, -eras, -erat ; 



-eramus, -eratis, 



-erant. 



Fut. 


Prod-ero, 


-eris, -erit ; 




-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erunt. 


Per. 


Profu-i, 


-isti, -it ; 




-imus, 


-istis, 


( -erunt, or 
\ -ere. 


Plu. 


Profu-eram, 


-eras, -erat ; 




-eramus, 


-eratis, 


-erant. 


F.P. 


Profu-ero, 


-eris, -erit ; 




-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 






SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD. 






Pr. 


PrO-sim, 


-sis, -sit ; 




-slmus, 


-sitis, 


-sint. 


Imp. 


Prod-essem, 


-esses, -esset ; 




-ess emus, 


-essetis, 


-essent. 


Per. 


Profu-erim, 


-eris, -erit ; 




-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 


Plu. 


Profu-issern, 


-isses, -isset ; 




-issemus, 


-issetis, 


-issent. 






IMPERATIVE 


MOOD. 






Pr. 


2. Prod-es; 




2. 


Prod-este. 






Fut. 


2. Prod-esto 


7 


2. 


Pr5d-estote. 


•- 




3. Prod-esto 


5 


3. 


Pro-sunto. 







Pr. Prod-esse. 
Per. Pro-fuisse. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Fut. Esse pro-futurus, a, urn, 



xui. jljooc piu- lutuiuo, a,, uiu, 

F. P. Fuisse pro-futurus, a, um. 



PARTICIPLE. 

Fut. Pro-futurus, a, um. 



£12. — 2. Possum is compounded of pot- (potis, pote), " able," and sum, 
11 I am." It is thus inflected — the t being changed into s before s, and 
/ being omitted after t : 

Possum, posse, potuT, 



lean, I am able. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. 


Possum, 


potes, 


potest ; 


possumus, 


potestis, possunl 


Imp. 


Pot-eram, 


-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, -erant. 


Fut. 


Pot-ero, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, -erunt. 


Per. 


Potu-i, 


-isti, 


-it; 


-imus, 


-istis, \ - 5 ™^ 
' ( -ere. 


Plu. 


Potu-eram, 


-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, -erant. 


F.P. 


Potu-ero, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, -erint. 



or 



180 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



[413 







SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Pr. 


Pos-sim, 


-sis, -sit ; -sim us, 


-sltis, 


-sint. 


Imp. 


Pos-sem, 


-ses, -set ; -semus, 


-setis, 


-sent. 


Per. 


Potu-erim, 


-eris, -erit ; -erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 


Plu. 


Potu-issem, 


-isses, -isset ; -issemus, 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 


-issetis, 


-issent. 


Pr. 


Posse. 


Per. Potuisse. ( 


The 7*est wc 


tnting.) 



The participial form potent(i~) is only used as an adjective, " powerful ; " 
cf. 280. Observe that possem and posse are contracted from pot-essem and 
pol-esse. 



413.—%. 


Eo, 


Ire, 


Ivi, 


itum, 


to go. 






l.i-, 


2. iv-, 


3. ito-, 








INDICATIVE MOOD. 






Pr. Eo, 


is, 


it; 


Imus, 


Itis, 


eunt. 


Imp. Ibam, 


Ibas, 


ibat; 


ibamus, 


Ibatis, 


Ibant. 


Fut. Ibo, 


Ibis, 


Ibit; 


Ibimus, 


Ibitis, 


Ibunt. 


Per. Ivi, 


Ivistl, 


Ivit ; 


Ivimus, 


Ivistis, 


j Iverunt, or 
\ Ivere. 


Plu. Iveram, 


Iveras, 


Iverat ; 


Iveramus, 


Iveratis, 


Iverant. 


F. P. Ivero, 


Iveris, 


Iverit ; 


Iverimus, 


Iveritis, 


Iverint. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 






Pr. Earn, 


eas, 


eat; 


eamus, 


eatis, 


eant. 


Imp. Irem, 


ires, 


Iret; 


iremus, 


iretis, 


Irent. 


Per. Iverim, 


iveris, 


Iverit ; 


Iverimus, 


Iveritis, 


Iverint. 


Plu. Ivissem, 


Ivesses 


, Ivisset ; 


ivissemus, 


Ivissetis, 


Ivissent. 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




Pr. 2. I; 






2. Ite. 






Fut. 2, Ito, 3. 


Ito; 




2. Itote, 3. eunto. 








INFINITIVE MOOD. 






Pr. Ire. 






Fut. Esse iturus, a, \ 


um. 


Per. Ivisse. 






F. P. Fuisse iturus, a 


, um. 


PARTICIPLES. 




GERUNDS. 


SUPINES. 


Pr. lens, Gen. euntis. 




Eundum. 


1. 


Itum. 


Fut. Iturus, a, 


um. 




Eundi, etc. 


2. 


Itu. 



414-417] 



rKKEGULAK VEEBS. 



161 



Eo is irregular in changing i of the stem to e before endings beginning 
with a, o, u. Observe, also, the omission of the connecting vowel in the 
past imperfect, and the tense sign b in the future. Some compounds have 
rarely in the future, earn, ies, iet, etc. 

4:14=* — The compounds of eo are conjugated after the same manner : 
ad-, ab-, ex-, co-, in-, inter-, ob-, re-d-, sub-, per-, prae-, ante-, pro-d-eo : 
only in the perfect, and the tenses formed from it, they are usually con- 
tracted (see 317); thus, adeo, adlre, adii (seldom adlvi), aditum, "to go 
to ; " perf. adii, adiisti, or adlsti, etc., adieram, adierim, etc. So likewise 

veneo, venil, , "to be sold" (compounded of venum and eo). But 

ambio, -ire, -Ivi, -Hum, " to surround," is a regular verb of the fourth 
conjugation, but has amblbam as well as ambiebam. 

41&* — Eo, like other intransitive verbs is often rendered in English 
under a passive form ; thus, it, " he is going ; " Ivit, " he is gone ; " iverat, " he 
was gone ; " iverit, " he may be gone," or " shall be gone." So, venit, " he is 
coming ; " venit, " he is come ; " venerat, " he was come ; " etc. In the passive 
voice these verbs, for the most part, are used only impersonally ; as, Itur ab 
Hid, " he is going ; " ventum est ab illis, " they are come." The infinitive pas- 
sive is used as an auxiliary to form the future infinitive passive : amatum iri 
(330). We find some of the compounds of eo, however, used personally ; 
as, perlcula adeuntur, " — are undergone." Cic. Libri sibylllnl aditl sunt, 
" — were looked into." Liv. Flumen pedibus translrl potest (Les. Jnim- 
xcitiae subeantur. Cic. 

416 • — Queo, " I can," and nequeo, " I cannot," are conjugated in the 
same way as eo ; only they want the imperative and the gerunds, and the 
participles are seldom used. 



417.— 4. Yolo, 



velle, volui, To will, to be willing, to wish. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Yolo, 


VIS, 


vult; 


volumus, 


vultis, 


volunt. 


Imp. Yol-ebam, 


-ebas, 


-ebat ; 


-ebamus, 


-ebatis, 


-ebant. 


Fut. Yol-am, 


-es, 


-et ; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


Per. Volu-I, 


-isti, 


-it; 


-imus, 


-istis, 


-erunt, or 

-ere. 
-erant. 


Plu. Yolu-eram, 


-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, 


F. P. Yolu-ero, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Pr. Yelim, 


veils, 


velit ; 


velimus, 


velitis, 


velint. 


Imp. Yellem, 


velles, 


vellet ; 


vellemus, 


velletis, 


vellent. 


Per. Yolu-erim, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 


Plu. Yolu-issem, 


-isses, 


-isset ; 


-issemus, 


-issetis, 


-issent. 



102 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



[418,419 



INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLE. 

Pr. Velle. Per. Voluisse. Pr. Vole'ns. 

£18. — 5. Nolo, nolle, nolui, To be unwilling (from ne (non) volo). 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 
nonvis, nonvult ; nolumus, nonvultis, nolunt. 



Pr. NOlo, 
Imp. NOl-ebam, 
Fut. Nol-am, 
Per, Nolu-I, 

Plu. NOlu-eram, 
F. P. Nolu-ero, 



Pr. Nolim, 
Imp. Nollem, 
Per. Nolu-erim, 
Plu. Nolu-issem, 



-ebas, 

-es, 

-isti, 



-eras, 
-eris, 



-ebat ; 

-et; 

-it; 

-erat ; 
-erit ; 



-ebamus, -ebatis, 
-etis, 
-istis, 



-emus, 
-imus, 

-eramus. 



-eratis, 



erimus, -eritis, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

noils, nolit ; nollmus, nolitis, 

nolles, nollet; nollemus, nolletis, 
-eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, 

-isses, -isset ; 



-ebant. 
-ent. 
-erunt, or 

-ere. 
-erant. 
-erint. 



nOlint. 
nollent. 
-erint. 
-issent. 



-issemus, -issetis, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. 2. Noli; 2. Nollte. 

Fut. 2. NolItO; 3. nollto; 2. Nolltote; 3. nolunto. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pr. Nolle. Pr. Nolens. 

Per. Noluisse. (The rest wanting.) 

4:19, — 6. Malo, malle, malul, To be more willing (magis volo). 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. 


Malo, 


mavis, 


mavult ; 


malumus, 


mavultis, 


malunt. 


Imp. 


Mal-ebam, 


-ebas, 


-ebat ; 


-ebamus, 


-ebatis, 


-ebant. 


Fut. 


Mal-am, 


-es, 


-et; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


Per. 


Malu-i, 


-isti, 


-it; 


-imus, 


-istis, 


-erunt, or 


Plu. 


Malu-eram, 


-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, 


—ere. 
-erant. 


F.P. 


Malu-ero, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Pr. 


Malim, 


malls, 


malit ; 


malimus, 


malltis, 


malint. 


Imp. 


Mallem, 


malles, 


mallet ; 


mallemus, 


mall etis, 


mallent. 


Per. 


Malu-erim, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 


Plu. 


Malu-issem, 


-isses, 


-isset ; 


-issemus, 


-issetis, 


-issent. 



420-423] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



1G3 



Pr. Malle. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Per. Maluisse. (The rest not used.) 



4:20. — Observe that where 11 occurs, it is the result of the omission of 
the connecting vowel e, and the consequent assimilation of r to /. Thus, 
vellem is for velerem (velrem, vellem) ; malle is for mcdere (mcdre, malle). 

4:21. — Volt, voltis, are sometimes found for vult } vultis ; sis, sultis, 
for si vis y si vidtis ; vin' for visne. 

422* — 1. Fero, ferre, tull, latum, To carry, to bring, or suffer. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. 


Fero, 


fers, 


fert; 


ferimus, 


fertis, 


ferunt. 


Imp. 


Fer-ebam, 


-ebas, 


-ebat ; 


-ebamus, 


-ebatis, 


-ebant. 


Fut. 


Fer-am, 


-es, 


-et ; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


Per. 


Tul-i, 


-isti, 


-it; 


-imus, 


-istis, 


-erunt, or 
-ere. 


Plu. 


Tul-eram, 


-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, 


-erant. 


F.P. 


Tul-ero, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Pr. 


Fer-am, 


-as, 


-at; 


-amus, 


-atis, 


-ant. 


Imp. 


Fer-rem, 


-res, 


-ret; 


-remus, 


-retis, 


-rent. 


Per. 


Tul-erim, 


-eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 


Plu. 


Tul-issem, 


-isses, 


-isset ; 


-issemus, 


-issetis, 


-issent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. 2. Fer; 2. Ferte. 

Fut. 2. Ferto ; 3. ferto ; 2. Fertote ; 3. ferunto. 



Pr. Ferre. 
Per. Tulisse. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Ferens. 

Fut, Laturus, a, um. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Fut. Esse laturus, a, um. 
F. P. Fuisse laturus, a, um, 



GERUNDS. 

A. Ferendum. 
G. Ferendl, etc. 



423.- 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
Feror, ferrl, latus, 



SUPINES. 

1. Latum. 

2. Latu. 



To be brought 



164 IRREGULAR VERES. [424-426 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Feror, { ^r ferre, \ fertur; ferimUr ' feriminI > feruntur - 

Imp. Fer-ebar, j '^-Sbire, } ^ bato 5 -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 

Fut. Fer-ar, j J^re, [" gtur ' -* mur > " gmim "' " entUr ' 
Per. Latus sum, or fui, latus es, or fuistl, latus est, or fuit, etc. 
Plu. Latus eram, or fueram, latus eras, or fueras, etc. 
F. P. Latus ero, latus eris, latus erit, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Ferar, "j f Tf^are \ fer5tur 5 feramur, feramim, ferantur. 

Imp. Ferrer, \ ferrens, ) f errgtur . f er remur, ferreminl, ferrentur. 
' ( or ferrere, ) J 

Per. Latus sim, or fuerim, latus sis, or fueris, etc. 

Plu. Latus essem, or fuissem, latus esses, or fuisses, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. 2. Ferre; 2. Ferimim. 

Fut. 2. Fertor ; 3. fertor ; 3. Feruntor. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Ferrl. Per. Latus, a, um. 

Per. Esse, or fuisse latus, a, um. Fut. Ferondus, a. um. 
Fut. Latum M. 

4:24:* — The irregularity of fer- consists in the omission of the con- 
necting vowel e or i in several of the forms : fers for feris ; ferris for 
fereris ; ferrem for fererem. It also has rr in the present infinitive pas- 
sive: ferrl for ferl, 

423* — In like manner are conjugated the compounds of fero ; as, 
affero, attull, allatum ; aufero, abstuli, ablatum ; differo, distull, dlldtum ; 
confero, contull, collatum ; infero, intuit, illatum ; off ero, obtuli, oblatum ; 
effero, extull, elatum. So circum-, per-, trans-, de-, pro-, ante-, prae-, 
re-fero. In some editions, we find, adfero, adtuli, adlatum ; conlatum; 
inlatum ; obfero, etc., for offero, etc. 

4% 6* — 8. Flo, fieri, factus, To be made, or done ; to become. 



427-431] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



165 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Flo, fis, fit; (fimus?) 

Imp. Fiebam, fiebas, flebat; fiebamus, 

Fut. Ram, fies, fiet; fiemus, 

Per. Factus sum, or fui, factus es, or fuistl, etc. 
Plu. Factus eram, or fueram, factus eras, or fueras, etc. 
F. P. Factus ero, factus eris, etc. 



(f Itis ?) 

fiebatis, 

fietis, 



fiunt. 
f lebant. 
flent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Flam, f las, fiat ; f lamus, f iatis, 

Imp. Fierem, fieres, fieret; fieremus, fieretis, 

Per. Factus sim, or fuerim, factus sis, or fueris, etc. 
Plu. Factus essem, or fuissem, factus esses, or fuisses, etc. 



f lant. 
fierent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Fi; 



fite. 



• INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Fieri. 

Per. Esse, or fuisse factus, a, urn. 
Fut. Factum Irl. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Fut. Faciendus, a, um. 
Per. Factus, a, um. 



SUPINE. 

2. Factu. 



4:27* — The i in flo is always long except in fit, and before er (fieri, 
fierem). 

4:28. — The third person singular of fio is often used impersonally; 
as, fit, " it happens ; " flebat, " it happened." 

429. — Flo is used as the passive of facio, from which it takes the 
participles. The compounds of facio, with verbal roots, have flo for their 
passive ; as, calefacio, " I warm ; " calefio, " I become warm," " I am 
warmed," etc. But compounds with prepositions have the regular passive 
mficior ; as, conficio, conficior, etc. 

430. — Some of the compounds of flo are found only in a few forms : 
Confit, conf lat, confieret, confieri, to be done. 



Defit, defiunt, dgfiet, deflat, 

Infit, infiunt, 



defieri, to be wanting, 
to begin. 



431. — 9 To irregular verbs may be added edo, "to eat." Though 
this is a regular verb of the third conjugation, it has an irregular form re- 



166 DEFECTIVE VERBS. [432-437 

sembling sum in the present indicative, imperfect subjunctive, the impera- 
tive, and the present infinitive ; thus : 

Edo, edere, or esse, edl, esum, To eat. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

j ( Ederem, ederes, ederet ; ederemus, ederetis, ederent. 
( or essem, esses, esset ; essemus, essetis, essent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

p { 2. Ede, 2. edite. 

" |ores; este. 

« j 2. Edito, 3. edito; 2. editote, 3. edunto. 

( or esto, esto; estote. 

4-32 • — Occasionally passive forms so contracted are found : esiur for 
editor, essetur for ederetur. • 

4:33. — The present subjunctive has sometimes im for am : edim, edls, 

, etc. See 325. 

The third stem of the compound corned- is both comeso- and comedo-. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

434* — Defective Verbs are those in which some of 
the parts are wanting. 

1. These three, odi, coepl, and memini y have no first stem, and, therefore, 
are used only in the perfect tenses ; and for this reason, they are called 
Preterite Verbs. 

43 S, — Coepl has a present, as well as a perfect signification; and 
hence coeperam has the sense of the imperfect, as well as of the pluperfect ; 
and coepero, of the future, as well as of the future perfect ; thus, coepl, " I 
begin," or "I have begun;" coeperam, "I began," or "I had begun;" 
coepero, " I shall begin," or " I shall have begun ; " and so on of the sub- 
junctive. 

436.-— Odi and memini have the sense only of the present, imperfect, 
and future ; as, odi, " I hate ; " oderam, " I hated ; " odero, " I shall hate." 

437. — 2. The parts of these verbs in use are as follows, through all 
their persons and numbers ; viz. : 



438-444] 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



167 



Odi, oderam, odero, oderim, odissem, odisse. 

Participles, Gsus, osurus. 

CoepI, coeperam, coepero, coeperim, coepissem, coepisse. 
Participles, coeptus, coepturus. 

Meminl, memineram, meminero, meminerim, meminissem, meminisse. 
Imperative, memento, mementote. 

4:38. — Obs. Osus is active in sense, "hating;" but is chiefly found 
in the compounds exosus, perosus. 

430. — The passive perfect coeptus is commonly used for coepi before 
passive infinitives : domus aedificarl coepta est (not coepit), " the house be- 
gan to be built." 

440. — Novl, perf. of nosco, "to learn," and consuevi, perf. of consu- 
esco, " become accustomed," are imperfect in sense ; novl, " I know," con- 
suevlj " I am accustomed." 

441. — There are many verbs, not usually considered among defectives, 
which want certain tenses, or numbers, or persons ; thus, do, " I give," has 
neither dor nor der. Fari, u to speak," with its compounds, is used only 
by the poets, and by them chiefly in the third person, ftitur ; the imper- 
ative/are; and the participle fdtus. 

442. — The following defective verbs are those which most frequently 
occur. Aio, " I say ; " — inquam, " I say," which is used only between 
words quoted, and never stands at the beginning ; — ave, and salve, u hail ; " 
— Cedo, " tell thou," or " give me ; " — quaeso, " I beseech," originally the 
same as quaero. It is used commonly as an interjection. 

The parts of these verbs remaining are the following : 

443. 

1. Aio, I say, I affirm. 



Ind. Pk. 

Imp. 

Pee. 
Sub. Pr. 
Imp. Pfi. 
Part. Pk. 



Aio, 

Aiebam, 



ais, 

uicbas, 

fristl, 

uiiis, 

ai. 



ai't ; 
iiiGbat ; 
ait. 
aiat. 



aiebiimus, aiobiltis, 



aiunt. 

iiiG bant. 

aiant. 



444, 



Ind. 



Imp. 



Pr. 
Imp. 

Fut. 
Prr. 
Pr. 



Aiens, {adj.) 



Inquam, inquis, 



2. Inqttam, I say. 

inquit ; inquimus, inquitis, 
- inquiCbat; 



inqtiiunt. 
inquiebant. 



inquies, inquiet. 
inquistl, inquit. 
inque. 



Fijt. inquito. 



168 



IMPERSONAL VEEBS. 



[445-452 



3. Forem, I should be. 
fores, foret ; 



4:4:5. 

Sub. Imp. Forem, 

Inf. Fur. Fore, to be about to be, the same as futurwm erne. 

446. 

4. Ave, hail. 
Imp. Pr. Ave ; avete ; Fur. aveto. Inf. Pr. Avere. 



forent. 



447. 



448. 



449. 



5. Salve, hail. 
Ind. Fut. Salvebis. 
Imp. Pr. Salve, salvete ; Fut. salveto. 
Ii\f. Pr. Salvere. 

6. Cedo, tell, give. 
Imp. Pr. Cedo ; (cedite) contracted, cette. 

7. Qfaeso, I beseech. 
Ind. Pr. Quaeso; quaesumus. 



450. — The verb ova-, " triumph," seems to occur only in the forms 
ovas, ovat, ovet, ovaret, ovans, ovandi, ovdlus, ovaturus. 

Age and agile, " come," are imperatives from ago, in a somewhat dif- 
ferent sense, just as ave, " hail," is an imperative from aveo, " to be well." 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
451. — Impersonal Verbs are those which 
are used only in the third person singular, and 
do not admit of a personal subject or nominative 
before them. 

452. — Impersonal verbs, when translated literally into English, 
have before them the neuter pronoun it ; as, delectat, " it delights ; " decet, 
" it becomes ; " contingit, " it happens ; " eve/nit, " it comes to pass ; " etc. 
They are inflected thus : 



1st Conj. 


2d Conj. 


3d Conj. 


4th Conj. 


Ind. Pr. Delectat, 


Decet, 


Contingit, 


Evenit, 


Imp. Delectabat, 


Decebat, 


Contingebat, 


Eveniebat, 


Fut. Delectiibit, 


Decebit, 


Cod tinge t, 


Eveniet, 


Per. Deleetavit, 


Decuit, 


Contigit, 


Evenit, 


Plu. Delectaverat, 


Decuerat, 


Contigerat, 


Evenerat, 


F. P. Delectaverit. 


Decuerit. 


Contigerit. 


Evenerit. 



453-455] 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



169 



Bub. Pr. Delectet, Deceat, 

Imp. Delectarct, Deceret, 

Pee. Delectaverit, Decuerit, 

Plu. Delectavisset. Decuisset. 

Inf. Pr. Delectare, Decere, 

Per. Dylectavisse. Decuisse. 



Contingat, 
Contingeret, 
Contigerit, 
Contigisset. 

Contingere, 
Contigisse. 



Eveniat, 
Eveniret, 
Evonerit, 
Evenisset. 

Evenire, 
Evenisse. 



458.— Intransitive verbs, which have no object in the active, can 
of course (263) have no subject in the passive, and if used with passive forms 
must be impersonal ; as, pugnatur, " it is fought ; " favetur, " it is favor- 
ed ; " curritur, " it is run ; " venitur, " it is come ; " from pugno, faveo, 
curro, and venio. Thus, 



1st Conj. 
Ind. Pr. Pugnatur, 
Imp. Pugnabatur, 
Fur. Pugnabitur, 
Per. Pugnatum est, 1 
Plu. Pugnatum erat, 2 
F. P. Pugnatum erit. 8 



2d Conj. 
Favetur, 
Favebatur, 
Favebitur, 
Fautum est, 1 
Fautum erat, 2 
Fautum erit. 8 



3d Conj. 
Curritur, 
CurrGbatur, 
CurrGtur, 
Cursum est, 1 
Cursum erat, 2 
Cursum erit 8 



4th Conj. 
Venltur, 
Veuicbatur, 
Venietur, 
Ventum est, 1 
Ventum erat, 2 
Ventum erit. 8 



Sub. Pr, Pugnetur, Faveatur, Curratur, Yeniatur, 

Imp. Pugnaretur, FavcrGtur, Currerctur, Veniretur, 

Per, Pugnatum sit, 3 Fautum sit, 8 Cursum sit, 3 Ventum sit, 3 

Pltt. Pugnatum esset. 4 Fautum esset. 4 Cursum esset. 4 Ventum esset. 4 

■Inf. Pr. Pugnari, Faveri, Curri, VcnM, 

Per. Pugnatum esse. 6 Fautum esse. 5 Cursum esse. 5 Ventum esse. 5 



454:. — Grammarians reckon 
the second conjugation ; namely, 
Decet, decuit, etc., 
Libet, libuit or libitum est, etc., 
Licet, licuit or licitum est, etc., 
Miseret, miseritum est, etc. 
Oportet, oportuit, etc., 
Piget, piguit or pigitum est, etc., 
Poenitet, poenituit, etc., 
Pudet, puduit or puditum est, etc. 
Taedet, pertaesum est, etc., 
Liquet, licuit, 



only ten real impersonal verbs, and all in 

It becomes, it became, etc. 
It pleases, it pleased, etc. 
It is lawful, it was lawful, etc. 
It pities, it pitied, etc. 
It behooves, it was incumbent on, etc. 
It grieves, it grieved, etc. 
It repents, it repented, etc. 
, It shames, it shamed, etc. 
It wearies, it wearied, etc. 
It appears. 



455. — Decet is sometimes found in the third plural ; also licet 
and liquet, rarely. 

1 or fuit 9 or fuerat 3 or fuerit 4 or fuisset. 5 or fuisso. 

8 



170 EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS. [456-459 

Participial forms are found of some of these : libens, " willing ; " 
licens, " free ; " poeniiens, " penitent ; " poenitendus, " to be repented of; " 
pudendus, " shameful." 

4:56* — Under impersonal verbs, may be comprehended those which 
express the operations or appearances of nature ; as, fidgurat, " it 
lightens ; " fuhninat, tonat, " it thunders ; " grandinat, " it hails ; " so, gelat, 
pluit, ningit, lucescit, advesperascit, etc. 

4:57 • — Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number, by put- 
ting that which stands before personal verbs, as their nominative, after the 
impersonals, in the case which they govern ; as, 

Placet mihi, It pleases me, or I please. 

Placet tibi, It pleases thee, or thou pleasest. 

Placet illi, It pleases him, or he pleases. 

Placet nobis, It pleases us, or we please. 

Placet vobis, It pleases you, or you please. 

Placet ilils, It pleases them, or they please. 

$o,pugnatur ctme, — a te, — ah Hid, etc., " it is fought by me," — " by thee," 
— " by him ; " that is, I fight, thou lightest, he fights, etc. Hence, as the 
meaning of a transitive verb may be expressed by either the active or the 
passive voice, so, when an intransitive verb is translated by a verb which 
is transitive in English, the English passive form of that verb is expressed, 
in Latin, by the passive used impersonally : thus, actively, faveo tibi, " I 
favor you ; " passively, favetur tibi a me, " you are favored by me," and so 
of others. 

4:58, — Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take the 
subjunctive in its stead ; as, delectet, " let it delight." In the passive voice, 
their participles are used only in the neuter gender. The gerunds and 
supines are but seldom used. 

459. EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS. 

(For the meaning of the impersonals used in the following exercises, see 

452-457.) 

1. Give the designation, the place found, the translation ; thus, deleciat, 
a verb impersonal, first conjugation, found in the present indicative, active ; 
" it delights." 

Deleetabit, decebat, decebit, decgret, contingit, continget, contigit, con- 
tigerit, evenit, evenit, eveniet, eveniat, pugnabatur, pugnatum est, pugne- 
tur, pugnaretur, favetur, fautum sit, fautum fuerit, ventum est, ventum 
erit ;— libet, libuit, licitum est, miseret, miseritum est, piget, pudet, fulgurat, 
tonat, grandinabat, grandinabit, ninxit, etc. 



1 



460] PARTICLES. 171 

2. Give the designation, etc., as in JVo. 1, and translate as the word fol- 
lowing the impersonal requires, according to 457 ; thus, delectat me ; delectat, 
a verb impersonal, first conjugation, present indicative, active ; " it delights 



Delectabit me, te, ilium, nos, vos, illos ; decet v5s, deceret vos ; placet 
tibi ; favetur vobis, favebitur nobis (a te, by you) ; pugnabitur ab illis ; 
venitur a te, ventum est ab illis, — a vobis r — a nobis, — ab illo, — a te, — a 
me ; piget me ; licet mihi, licebit vobis, licitum est illis ; miseret me, mi- 
serebit te ; placuit vobis, — nobis, — illis ; miseret nos, etc. 

3. Render the following English into Latin, by the impersonals ; thus, 
" I delight," delectat me, literally, " it delights me." — N. B. The noun or 
pronoun, after miseret, poenitet, pudet, taedet, piget, decet, delectat, and oportet, 
must be put in the accusative. Intransitive impersonals are followed by the 
dative of the object, when they have one ; and when they express any thing 
done by another, the agent or doer, when expressed, is put in the ablative 
preceded by a or ab, as in 457. 

Exercises. — It becomes, it has repented, it is fought, it pleases, it is 
favored ; it becomes me, I repent (it repents me), I fight (it is fought by 
me), you are favored (it is favored to you), you are favored by me ; I re- 
pented, they have repented, you will repent ; they are favored by us, — by 
you, — by me, etc. ; we are favored by them, — by you ; they come (it is 
come by them), they have come, we will come ; we run, we will run ; if (si) 
you please, if they please ; it was allowed to us, we were allowed ; it de- 
lights us, or we are delighted, they are delighted ; it thunders, it lightens, 
it hailed, etc. 



PARTICLES, 

The name Particles is given to the four undeclined 
parts of speech, the Adverb, the Preposition, the 
Conjunction, the Interjection. 

ADVERBS. 

4:60. — An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some 
circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be here considered in respect of Signification and Com- 
parison. 



172 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. [461-463 | 

I. THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

4:61, — In respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged, in I 
Latin, under the following heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place, comprehending those which signify: 

1st. Motion or rest in a place ; as, ubi, " where ; " hie, " here ; " illic^ \ 
" there ; " intus, " within; " ubique, " everywhere ; " etc. 

2d. Motion to a place ; 2^, quo? "whither?" hue, "hither;" illuc, isthuc, I 
" thither ; " eo, " to that place ; " alio, " to another place; " etc. 

3d. Motion from a place ; as, unde, " whence ; " hinc, " hence ; " Mine, I 
inde, " thence ; " superne, " from above ; " etc. 

4th. Motion through or by a place ; as, qua f " which way ? " alia, " another j 
way;" etc. 

i 

2. Adverbs op Time; as, nunc, "now;" hodie, "to-day;" turn, 
" then ; " nuper, " lately ; " mox, " by and by ; " semper, " always ; " etc. 

3. Adverbs op Quantity ; as, parum, " little ; " multum, " much ; " 
paene, " almost ; " quanto, " how much ; " etc. 

4. Adverbs op Quality ; as, bene, " well ; " malt, " ill ; " foriiter, 
" bravely ; " and many others derived from adjectives or participles. 

5. Adverbs of JKaWiier (viz. of action or condition), including those 
which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, forbidding, in- 
terrogation, doubt, contingency, etc. ; as, profecto, " truly ; " non, haud, | 
" not ; " cur ? " why ? " qudre, u wherefore ; " etc. 

6. Adverbs of Helation, or such as express circumstances of compari- i 
son, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, etc. ; as, potius, " rather ; " | 
ita, sic, " so ; " simul, " together; " seorsum, " apart ; " etc. 



II. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

4:62. — Adverbs derived from adjectives are generally 
compared like their primitives. The positive commonly ends in e, 6 
or ter ; the comparative, in ius, the neuter nom. sing, of the adjective ; and 
the superlative, in ime ; as, 

Positive. Comp. Super. 

Alte, highly ; altius, altissime. 

Fortiter, bravely ; fortius, fortissime. 

Acriter, sharply ; acrius, acerrime. 

Llbere, freely ; llberius, liberrime. 

Tuto, safely ; tutius, tutissime. 

463. — The following adverbs are compared irregularly, like the ad- 
jectives from which they are derived ; viz. : 



464-4:t)yj 


PBEPOSITIONS. 




Positive. 
Bene, well ; 
Facile, easily ; 
Male, badly ; 
Multum, much ; 


Comp. 
melius, 
facilius, 
pejus, 
plus, 


Super. 
optime. 
facillime. 
pessime. 
plurimum. 


Parum, little ; 


minus, 


( minime. 
( minimum. 


Prope, near ; 


propius, 


proxime. 



173 



Positive wanting. 

4:04:* — Magis, more, maxime; ocius, more swiftly, ocissime; prius, 
sooner, primo or prlmum ; potius, rather, potissimum. 

Comparative wanting. 

465. — Paene, almost, paenissime ; nuper, lately, nuperrime ; nove, 
newly, novissime ; meritO, deservedly, meritissime. 

Superlative wanting. 

400. — Satis, enough, satius ; secus, otherwise, secius. 

407* — Two other Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also com- 
pared ; namely, diu, " long," diutius, diutissime; and saepe, " often," saepius, 
saepissime. 



PREPOSITIONS. 
468. — A Preposition is a word which, shows 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence. 

The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pronoun 
which it governs. — In Latin, 

409. — 1. Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative / viz. : 



Ad, to, at, towards. 

Apud, at, near, with. 

Ante, before (of time, place, or rank). 

Adversum, \ W*™*, towards. 

^. rca ' I around, about. 
Circum, J ' 

Circiter, about (of time indefinitely). 
p-h . y on this side, ivithin. 



Contra, against, opposite. 

Erga, toioards. 

Extra, beyond, out of 

Infra, beneath. 

Inter, between, among, during. 

Intra, within. 

Juxta, near, beside. 

Ob, for, on account of, before. 

Penes, in the power of. 



174 

Per, through, during, by 



OBSBEVATIONS. 



[470-475 



A 



Pone, behind, 



Propter, near, on account of. 
Secundum, along, according to. 
Post, behind, after, since. Supra, above. 

Praeter, beside (passing by), beyond, Trans, across, over, beyond, 
besides, except. Ultra, beyond. 



from, by, after, etc. 



470. — 2. Fifteen Prepositions govern the Ablative J viz. : 

^ I out of from, after. 

Pal am, before, with the knowledge of. 
Prae, before, in comparison with, on 

account of. 
Pro, before, for, according to. 
Sine, without. 
Tenus, as far as, up to. 






A, 

Ab, 

Abs, 

Absque, without. 

Clam, without the knowledge of. 

Coram, before, in presence of. 

Cum, with. 

De, down from, concerning, of 



4:71* — 3. Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Abla- 
tive / viz. : 

"With the Accusative. With the Ablative. 

In, into, towards, against. In, upon, in, among. 

Sub, wider (motion to), about. Sub, under (motion or rest), at, near. 

Super, above, over, beyond. Super, upon, concerning. 

Subter, under. Subter, under. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
4:72. — 1. A is used before consonants ; ab, before vowels, and h, j, r y 
s, and sometimes I ; abs chiefly before te. £ is used before consonants. 

473. — 2. Tenus is placed after its case ; and also cum, when joined 
to personal pronouns, and sometimes with the relative; as, quibuscum, 
mecum, etc. Clam sometimes governs the accusative ; as, clam patre, or 
patrem. 

474:. — 3. The adverbs prope, " nigh ; " usque, "as far as ; " versus, 

" towards," are often used with an accusative governed by ad understood, 
and sometimes expressed ; but versus is always placed after the accusative : 
Romam versus, " towards Rome." Prope, "nigh," and procul, "far," are 
sometimes followed by the ablative, governed by a, which after procul is 
generally understood. 

4. Prepositions not followed by their case, are to be regarded as adverbs. 

47S. — 5. A preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial 
phrase f as, ex animo, " earnestly ; " ex adverso, " opposite ; " ex improviso, 
" suddenly; " ex tempore, "off-hand." Quamobrem (quam ob rem), "where- 
fore ; " qua propter {quam propter) ; quocirca (quod circa), etc. 



476-486] INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 175 

PKEPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

£76. — Prepositions are often prefixed to other words, especially to 
verbs, the meaning of which they generally modify by their own ; thus— 

477.— h A, ab, abs, "from ; " as, duco, U I lead ; " abduco, "I lead 
away," or "from ; " sometimes it denotes privation ; as, amens, " mad." 

478.— 2. Ad, " to ; " as, addiico, M I lead to." It is sometimes inten- 
sive ; as, adamo y " I love greatly." 

479—3. De, in composition, generally signifies "downward;" as, 
descendo, " I go down ; " decido, " I fall down." Sometimes it is intensive ; 
as, deamo, " I love greatly ; " sometimes it denotes privation ; as, despevo, 
"I despair;" demens, "mad." 

480. — 4. E, or ex, " out of," " from ; " as, exeo, " I go out." It is some- 
times intensive ; as, ezovo, " I beg earnestly ; " sometimes privative ; as, 
exsanguis, "pale;" exspes, "hopeless." 

481. — 5. In, " into," " in," " against ; " as, infero, " I bring in ; " irruo, 
" I rush against or upon." With adjectives it generally reverses the sig- 
nification, being, in this case, the same in origin and meaning as our un- ; 
as, infidus, " unfaithful ; " indignus, " unworthy." In some compounds, 
it has contrary significations, according as they are participles or adjec- 
tives ; as, invocCdus, " called upon;" or "not called upon;" immutatus, 
" changed," or " unchanged." 

482. — 6. Per, " through," is commonly intensive, especially with adjec- 
tives ; as, perfacilis, " very easy." With quam, it is strongly intensive ; 
as, perguam facilis, " exceedingly easy." In perfidus, " perfidious," it is 
negative. 

483. — 7. Prae, " before," with adjectives is intensive ; as, pvaeclavus, 
" very clear," " very renowned." 

4S4. — 8. Pro denotes " forth ; " as, produco, " I lead forth." 

4S5.—9. Sub often diminishes the signification ; as, video, " I laugh ; " 
subrideo, " I smile ; " albus, " white ; " subalbus, " whitish." Sometimes it 
denotes motion upwards ; as, subrigo, " I raise up : " sometimes conceal- 
ment ; as, vapio, " I take ; " subripio, " I take secretly, " I steal." 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

<£##._The following syllables, amb, di or dis, ve (red), se, are called 
Inseparable Prepositions, because they are never found, except 
in compound words. Their general signification is as follows : 

Amb, about, avound ; as Ambio, to surround. 

Di, ov dis, asunder ; " Divello, to pull asunder. 

Re, back again , " Relego, to read again. 

Se, apart, or aside ; " SepOno, to lag aside. 



176 conjunctions. [487-494 

4:87* — Obs. 1. Some of these syllables, in combining with the simple 
word, sometimes vary their form, and, also, further, modify its signifi- 
cation; as — 

1st. Amb adds to the verb the general idea of round, round about. 

2d. Dis, or di, sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word ; as, 
facilis, " easy ; " difficilis, " difficult ; " fido, " I trust," diffldo, 
"I distrust." Sometimes it increases it; as, cupio, " I desire ; " 
discupio, " I desire much." 

3d. Re sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word ; as, claudo, 
" I shut ; " recludo, " I open." 

4th. Se has little variation of meaning. With adjectives, it denotes 
privation ; as, securus, " free from care." 

Obs. 2. The syllables ne and ve are also prefixed to words, and have a 
negative signification ; as, fas, "justice ; " nefas, " injustice," " impiety ; " 
— scio, " I know ; " nescio, " I know not ; " — sa?ms, " healthy ; " vestinus, 
" unsound." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 
488. — A Conjunction is a word which, con- 
nects words or sentences ; as, et, ac, atque, "and ; " 
sed, " but ; " etiam, " also ; " etc. 

Conjunctions, according to their different uses, may be 
divided into two classes : 

489.— A. Coordinate Conjunctions, which 
connect similar sentences or parts of sentences. These 
comprise jive heads : 

490.— 1. Copulatives, or such as connect things that are to be 

considered jointly; as, ac, atque, et, que, "and;" etiam, quoque, "also-" 
and the negative nee, neque, "nor," "and not;" since they stand for et 
and continue the negation. 

491.— 2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be 
considered separately ; as, aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, " either," " or." 

492.S. Adversatives, or such as express opposition; as, at 
atqui, autem, ccterum, verum, " but ; " tameri, attamen, veruntamen a vet " 
" although ; " vero, " truly." ' ' 

493. — 4. Causals, or such as express a cause or reason ; as, enim 

etenim, nam, namque, " for." 

494.-5. lllatives, or such as express an inference ; as, ergo 
idarco, " therefore ; " quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quGcirca, " wherefore." 



495-507] INTERJECTIONS. 177 

495. — B. Subordinate Conjunctions (or sub- 
junctions)? which connect subordinate or secondary- 
sentences with primary ones. These comprise eight heads : 

4:96. — 1. Finals 9 or such as denote a purpose or object; as, ne, 
"lest;" ut,uti, "that." 

4:07* — 2. Conditionals 9 or such as express a condition; as, si, 
sin, "if;" nisi, or ?ii, "unless;" dummodo, ovmodo, " provided that." 

498. — 3. ConsecutiveSf or such as express a consequence; at, 

'- so that ; " quin, " but that ; " quominus, " that not." 

490. — 4. Temporals, or such as express time, as quum, quando, 
" when ; " dum, donee, " until ; " antequam, priusquam, " before that." 

500. — 5. Concessives, or such as express concession ; as, quam- 
quam, licet, " although ; " quamvis, "however much," " although." 

501. — 6. Comparatives, or such as express comparison ; as, 
tit, sicut, " as ; " tanquam, quasi, velut si, " as if." 

502. — 1 7. Causals, or such as express cause ; as, quia, quod, " be- 
cause ; " quum, " since." 

503. — 8. Interrogatives 9 or such as express that a question is 
asked ; as, num, utrum, " whether." 

504, — Some words, as deinde, " thereafter ; " denique, " finally ; " 
caelerum, " but," " moreover ; " videlicet, " to wit ; " etc. ; may be consid- 
ered either as adverbs or conjunctions, according as their modifying or con- 
necting power prevails. 

505. — Autem, enim, vero, quoque, quidem, are never put first in a 
clause or sentence, and are therefore called Postpositive. Que, ve, ne, 
are always annexed to another word. They are called Enclitics 9 be- 
cause they lean back upon the .preceding word, and throw their accent upon 
it : patresque, matresque. 



INTERJECTIONS, 
506* — An Interjection is a word used in ex- 
clamations, to express an emotion of the mind ; as, 
Oh ! Tiei ! lieu ! " All ! " " alas ! " 

507 • — Interjections may be divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : 

1. Of surprise : ! en ! ecce ! papae ! atat ! etc. 

2. Of ijrief : ah! eheu! hei ! vae ! 

3. Of joy : To ! ha ! evoe ! eu ! 

8* 



178 FORMATION OF WORDS. [508-513 



4. Of disgust : phui ! apage ! 

5. Of address : heus ! ! 

6. Of adjuration : pro (proh) ! 

To these may be added the abbreviated oaths : mehercule, pol, 
edepol, etc. 

Nouns and adjectives, in the neuter gender, are sometimes used as inter- 
jections ; as, pax ! " be still ! " malum ! " with a mischief! " infandum ! 
" shame ! " miserum ! " wretched ! " nefas ! " the villany ! " 

Note. — The same interjection is often used to express different emo- 
tions, according to its connection; thus, vah is used to express wonder, 
grief, joy, or anger. 



FORMATION OF WORDS.* 
Derivation of Substantives. 

Words are either Simple or Compound. 

508. — A Simple word may be either — 

(1.) A Pure Hoot without any addition : ad, ab, sub, ne, non. 
or (2.) A word derived from a root by the addition of a suffix : 
dic-o, dic-tio, dic-ax, from die-. 

509. — A Compound word is formed from two or more roots: 
homicida- a manslayer, from homon- man, and caed-, Icill. 

510. — A Moot is always a monosyllable, and expresses an elementary 
notion. 

511. — A Suffix is a termination added to a root to modify its 
meaning, but not intelligible by itself : as the s which is the sign of the 
nominative singular in most nouns. This letter, however, with the other 
formative signs of inflection, should be called an ending, leaving the word 
suffix to apply only to the terminations used in the derivation of words. 

512. — A Prefioo is a syllable placed before a root to modify its 
meaning : red-Ire, to go bach. In inflexion a prefix is only found in the 
perfect tenses of some verbs : mo-mordi, from morde-. (See 344.) 

513. — A Stem of a word is that part which remains after taking 
away all formative signs or endings ; as, agilis (stem agili-), active, volens 
(stem volent-), willing, from the roots ag- {act\ and vol- (will). 

* Mainly from Dr. W. Smith's Smaller Latin Grammar. 






514-522] FORMATION OF WORDS. 179 

314. — Primary Words. Some words are formed at once from 
the root by adding formative signs (endings). These are called Primary 
Words ; and in them the root and the stem are the same. Thus — 
Stem and Hoot. Formed Word. Meaning. 

Ag-, set in motion ; ago, I set in motion. 

Leg-, read; legis, thou readest. 

Fed-, foot; ' pedum, of feet 

Sol-, the sun ; soli, to the sun. 

515. — I. Substantives Derived from Verbs. 

Substantives are derived from verbs by the addition of the following 
suffixes. When the stem of a verb ends in a vowel, the vowel is often 
dropped : 

516. — 1. Or- (masc.) (n. s. -or), expresses the action or state of the 
verb as an abstract substantive : 

Amor-, love, (ama-) ; clamor-, a shout, (clama-). 

Calor-, heat, (cale-) ; timor-, fear, (time-). 

Favor-, favor, (fave-); furor-, madness, (fur-). 

517* — 2. Tor- (masc.) (n. s. -tor), denotes the doer of the action. 

Amator- a lover, (ama-) ; auditor-, a hearer, (audi-). 
Monitor-, an adviser, (mone-) ; victor-, a conqueror, (vic-(vinco)). 
Venator-, a hunter, (vena-) ; lector-, a reader, (leg-). 

518. — Most substantives in tor- have a corresponding feminine sub- 
stantive in trie- (n. s. -trix) : victor-, fern, victrlc- conqueress ; venator-, 
fern, venatrlc-, huntress. 

519. — Note. — The suffix tor- is subject to the same changes that 
occur in the formation of the third stem (357) ; thus, from curr-, run (3. 
curso-), we have cursor-, a runner (not curtor-). 

520. — 3. Ion- and ti5n- (fern.) (n.s. -io, -tio), denote the action itself. 

Obsidion- a siege, (obside-) ; oblivion-, forgetfulness, (obllvisc-). 
Action-, a doing, (ag-) ; lection- reading, (leg-). 

521. — 4. Tu- (masc.) (?i. s. -tus), also denotes the action. 

Actu-, a doing, (ag-) ; auditu- a hearing, (audi-). 

Auctu-, an increase, (auge-) ; cantu-, a singing, (can-). 

522. — Note. — The suffixes Hon-, tu-, are subject to the same changes 
as occur in the third stem ; thus, from vert-, turn (3. verso-), we have 
versu-, version-, (not vertu-, vertion-). 



180 FORMATION OF WORDS. [523-532 

523. — 5. Tura- {fern.) (n. s. -tura), also usually denotes the action. 

Mercatura-, a trading, (merca-) ; apertura- an opening, (aperi-). 
Cinctura-, a girding, (cing-); junctura-, a joining, (Jung-). 

524:. — 6. lo- (neuL) (n. s. -ium) denotes an act or state. 

Gaudio-, jog, (gaude-); odio-, hatred, (od-). 

Incendio-, afire, (incend-); aedificio-, a building, (aedifica-). 

525. — 7. Men- (nmt.) (n. s. -men), usually denotes an instrument. 

Tegmen-, a covering, (teg-) ; sSlamen-, a consolation, (s5la-). 

Lumen-, a light, ' (luce-) ; flumen-, a river, (flu-)- 

Note. The suffix men- has sometimes a passive force : agmen-, " that 
which is led," " an army marching." 

526. — 8. Mento- (neut.) (n. s. -mentum) denotes an instrument. 

Documento-, a proof, (doce-) ; ornamento-, an ornament, (orna-). 
Vestimento-, clothing, (vesti-); momento-, moving force, (move-). 

527. — 9. Bulo- and culo- (after I, bro- and cro-) {neut.) (n. s. -bu- 
lum, -culum, -brum, -crum), denote an instrument. 

Venabulo-, a hunting-spear, (vena-) ; pabulo-, fodder, (pa-(pascor)). 
Ferculo-, a tray, (fer-) ; lavacro-, a bath, (lava-). 

Fulcro-, a prop, (fulci-); flabro-, a blast, (fla-). 

528. — Note 1. — If the verb ends in c or g, the suffix is ulo-, only. 

Jaculo-, a dart, (jac-); cingulo-, a girdle, (cing-). 

Note 2. — Sometimes the suffix bido- denotes a place ; as, stabulo- (sta-), 
" a standing-place," or " stall." 

529. — 10. Ie- (fern.) (n. s. -ies), denotes that which is made, or the 
result of an action. 
Facie-, a figure, (fac-) ; congeriS-, a heap, (conger-). 

530.— II. Substantives Derived from Substantives. 

Substantives are derived from substantives by the addition of the fol- 
lowing suffixes : 

531. — 1. Ario- (masc.) (n. s. -arms), denotes a person engaged in 
some occupation. 

Argentario-, a banker, (argento-) ; statuario- a statuary, (statua-). 

Aerario-, a brazier, (aes-) ; sicarius, an assassin, (sica-). 

532. — 2. Ario- (neut.) (n, s. -arium), denotes the place where any 
thing is kept. 

Armario-, a cupboard, (armo-) ; aviario-, an aviary, (avi-). 
Columbario, a dove-cote, (columba-); aerario, a treasury, (aes-). 



533-541] DIMINUTIVES, 181 

533. — 3. Ina- (fern.) (n. s. Ina), denotes an employment, or the place 
where it is carried on. 

Mediclna-, the healing art, (medico-) ; sutrlna-, a shoemaker's shop, (sutor-). 

534.— Note.— Sometimes ina- denotes simply the female (of mobile 
nouns, 40): reglna- queen; gallina-, hen. It is properly an adjectival 
suffix. See 567. 

535.-4:. Atu- (masc.) (n. s. -atus), and ura- (fern.) (n. s. -ura), 
attached to names of officers, denote the office itself. 

Consulatu-, conmhhip, (consul-); tribunatu-, tribuneship, (tribuno-). 
Censtira-, censorship, (censor-); praetura- praetorship, (praetor-). 

536* — 6. Io- (neut.) (n. s. -ium), denotes an employment, condition, 
etc. 

SacerdOtio-, priesthood, (sacerdot-) ; ministerio-, service, (ministro-). 

Exsilio-; exile, (exsul-); hospitio-, hospitality, (hospet-). 

537 • — 6. Al- and ar- (neut.) (n. s. -al, -ar), denote a material object. 
Animal-, an animal, (anima- life) ; calcar- a spur, (calc-, heel). 

538. — 7. Eto- (neut.) (n. s. -etum) affixed to names of trees, etc., 
denotes the place where they grow, or the trees, etc., themselves col- 
lectively. 

Myrteto-, a myrtle-grove, (myrto-) ; querceto-, an oak mood, (quercu-). 
Oliveto-, an olive-yard, (oliva-) ; vineto-, a vine-yard, (vinea-). 

539. — 8. Ili- (neut.) (n. s. -He) affixed to the names of animals denotes 
a place for them. 
Bovlli-, an ox-stall, (bov-) ; ovlli- a sheep-fold, (ovi-). 

Note. — This is properly an adjectival suffix. See 564. 



Diminutives. 

54:0. — Diminutives denote not only smallness, but also endearment, 
commiseraiio?i, or contempt. They follow the gender of the substantives 
from which they are derived, and are formed by the following suffixes : 

541. — 1. Ulo- (masc.) (n. s. -ulus, -ulum), ula- (fern.) (n. s. -ula), 
added to substantives of the first and second declension. 

Nidulo-, m., a little nest (nido-, m.) ; hortulo-, m., a little garden (horto- m.). 
Mensula-, a little table (mensa-); silvula-, a little vjood (silva-). 
Sciitulo-, n., a small shield (sctito-, 

n.) ; "saxulo- n. } a small rock (saxo-, n.). 



182 patronymics. [542-548 

542. — 2. Culo- (masc. or neut.) (n. s. -cuius, -culum), cula-, (fem.) 
(n. s. -cula), added to substantives of the third, fourth, and fifth declen- 
sions : 

Fraterculo-, a little brother (fratr-) ; flosculo- m., a little flower (flos-, m.). 

Naviculo- a Utile ship (navi- /.) ; avicula- a little bird (avi-, /.). 
Versiculo-, m., a little verse (versu- 

m.) ; reeula-, a little thing (re-). 
Corpusculo-, w., a little body (cor- 

pos-, n.)] reticule—, n., a little net (reti-, n.). 

54:3. — Note 1. — If a vowel precedes the suffixes ulo-, ula-, they be- 
come olo-, ola- 

Filiolo-, a little son (f ilio— ) ; flliola-, a little daughter (f Ilia-). 

Malleolo-, m., a small hammer (mal- 
leo-, m.) ; atriolo, n. y a small hall, (atrio, n.). 

544 a — Note 2. — If the final vowel of the stem of the primitive is pre- 
ceded by /, n, r, and in a few other cases, a contraction takes place, and 
the termination of the diminutive becomes ello-, ella- and sometimes, but 
rarely, illo-, ilia-. 

Ocello-, m., a little eye (oculo- m.) ; libello- m., a little book (libro-, m.). 
Lapillo-, m., a littlestone (lapid-, m.) ; catella-, a little chain (catena-). 
Anguilla-, a little snake (angui-) ; sigillo-, n., a little figure (signo-, n.). 

545. — Note 3. — If the stem of the primitive ends in c, g, t y d, diminu- 
tives are generally formed by adding ulo- ula-. 

Regulo-, a petty king (reg-). radicula-, a little root (radie-, /.). 

Patronymics. 
546* — Patronymics are names borrowed from the Greek, to 
designate a person by a name derived from his father or ancestor. 

547.— Masculine Patronymics end in— 

1. Ida- (nom. s. ides) : Priamida- a son of Priam (Priamo-). 

2. Ida- (nom. s. ides) : Atrida- a son of Atreus (Atreu-). 
Note. — This suffix belongs to stems ending in eu-. 

3. Ada-, iada- (nom. s. ades, iades): Aeneada-, a son of Aeneas 

(Aenea-) ; Thestiada- a son of Thestius (Thestio-). 

548. — Feminine Patronymics end in — 

1. Id- (nom. s. -is): Tantalid-, a daughter of Tantalus (Tantalo-). 

2. Bid- (nom. s. -eis) : Neleid- a daughter of Neleus (Neleu-). 
Note. — This suffix belongs especially to stems in eu-. 

3. lad- (nom. s. -ias) : Laertiad-, a daughter of Laertes (Laerta-). 

4. Ina- (nom. s. ins) : Neptunma-, a daughter of Neptune (Neptiino-). 

5. Ona- (nom. s. one): Acrisiona- a daughter of Acrisius (Acrisio-). 



549-558] 



DEBXVATIOX OF ADJECTIVES, 



183 



54:9.— III. Substantives Derived from Adjectives. 

Substantives derived from adjeGtives denote a quality or state, and have 
the following; suffixes : 



550.— -1. la-: 

Gratia-, favor (grSto-) ; insama-, 

Miseria-, misery (misero-); prudentia-, 

551.—% Tia-: 

Laetitia-, joy (laeto-) ; justitia-, 

Mollitia-, softness (moili-); pigritia-, 

552.-3. Tat- (fern.) (wow. s. -tas) : 

Bonitat- goodness (bono-); veritat-, 

Pietat-, piety (pio-) ; Hbertat-, 

553. — £. Tudon- (fern.) (?wm. s. -tudo) : 
Fortittidon-, bravery (forti-); altitudon-, 



madness (insano-). 
prudence (prudent-). 



justice 
sloth 



truth 
liberty 



height 



554. — 5. Monia-: 

Sanctimonia-, sanctity (sancto-) ; castimCnia-, purity 



(justo-). 
(pigro-). 



(vero-). 
(libero-). 



(alto-), 
(casto-). 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
I. Adjectives Derived from Verbs. 

Adjectives are derived from verbs by the addition of the following 
suffixes : 

555, — l. Bundo- (w. s. -bundus), intensifying the meaning of the 
imperfect participle : 

Laetabundo- full of joy (laeta-). 

556.-2. Ido- (w. s. -idus), denotes the quality expressed by a verb : 

Frigido- cold (frige-) ; madido- wet (made-). 
Timido-, fearful (time-) ; valido- strong (vale-). 

557.-3. Hi- and bili- (n. s. -ilis, -bilis), denote the possibility of 
the act being done : 

Docili- teachable (doce-) ; facili- doable, easy (fac-). 
Amabili- lovable (ama-) ; mobili-, movable (move-). 

558. — 4. Ac(i-) (n. s. -ax), denotes a propensity, and generally a 
faulty one : 

Loquac(i-), talkative (loqu-) ; edac(i-), gluttonous (ed-). 
Audac(i-), daring (aude-) ; vorac(i-) voracious (vora-). 



184 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. [559-566 

559. — Note. — The following suffixes are less common : 
Cundo- (n. s. -cundus) : 

Iracundo-, passionate (Ira-, irascor). 
Facundo-, eloquent (fa-, farl), 

Ulo- (n. s. -ulus) : 

Querulo-, querulous (quer-). 

n. Adjectives Derived from Substantives. 

Adjectives are derived from substantives by the addition of the follow- 
ing suffixes : 

560. — 1. Eo (w. s. -eus), denotes the material, and rarely resem- 
blance : 

Aureo-, golden (auro-) ; ligneo-, wooden (ligno-). 
Piceo- pitchy (pic-) ; virgineo-, maidenlike (virgon-). 

561. — 2. Icio- or itio- (n. s. -icius, -itius), denotes the material, 
or relation to something : 

Latericio-, of brick (later-) ; tribunicio-, relating to a tribune (tri- 
btino-). 

562. — Note 1. Aceo- (n. s. -aceus), has the same meaning, but is 
rare : argillaceo- of clay (argilla-). 

2. Adjectives in icio- (n. s. -icius), derived from the third stem, 
denote the way in which a thing originates: commenticio, feigned (3. 
commento-). 

563. — 3. Ico- (n. s. -icus), denotes belonging or relating to a thing: 

Bellico-, relating to roar (bello-) ; civico-, civil (civi-). 

Note. — Amlco-, friendly ; antico-, front ; postico-, hinder ; aprlco-, 
sunny, have i. 

564:. — 4. Ili- (n. s. — ilis), has the same meaning: 

Hostili-, hostile (hosti-) ; servili-, slavish (servo-). 

565. — 5. Aii- (n. s. -alis), has the same meaning : 

Fatah-, fatal (fato-) ; regali-, kingly (reg-). 

Note. — If the last syllable of the substantive is preceded by /, the ad- 
jectival suffix becomes ari- : populari-, popular (populo-) ; salutari-, salu- 
tary (saltit— ). 



566. — 6. Io- (n. s. -ius) has the same meaning, and is usually formed 
from personal names : 

Patrio-, belonging to a father (patr-) ; Oratorio-, pertaininy to an orator 
(orator-). 



567-576] DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 185 

567 • — 7. Ino- (n. s. -Inus) has the same meaning, and is found espe- 
cially in derivations from the names of animals : 

Canlno-, pertaining to a dog (cani-). 

568* — 8. Ano- (n. s. -anus) has the same meaning : 
Urbano-, pertaining to a city (urb-). 

560 . — 9. Ario- (n. s. -arms) has the same meaning : 
Agrario— , pertaining to land (agro-). 

570. — 10. 6so- (n. s. -osus) denotes fulness: 

LapidOso-, full of stones (lapid-) ; animoso-, spirited (animo-). 

571* — 11. Lento- (n. s. -lentus), usually preceded by u or o, has the 
me meaning : 

Fraudulento-, deceitful (fraud-) ; violento-, violent (vis-). 

572. — 12. Ato(w. s. -atus), (sometimes Ito-, uto-), denote provided 
with something : 

Alato-, winged (ala-), togato-, wearing a toga (toga-). 
Aurlto-, furnished with ears (auri-) ; corntito, horned (cornu-). 

III.— Adjectives derived from Proper names* 

573. — Adjectives are derived from Roman names of men, by 
the suffixes : 

1. Ano- or iano- {n. s. -anus, -ianus), Mariano- (Mario-), Sullano- 

(Sulla-), Gracchano- (Graccho-), Ciceroniano- (Ciceron-). 

2. Ino- (n. s. -Inus), (rare) : Verrino- (verri-, with a pun on verri-^ 

" a hog)." 

574:. — From GreeTc names of men we have the suffixes : 

Eo-, io-, ico- (n. s. -eus, -lus-, -icus), Epicureo- (Epictiro-), Aris- 
I toteilo- ( Aristoteli-), Platonico- (Platon). 

Note. — The poets form adjectives in eo- from Roman names : Romuleo- 
i (Romulo-). 

575. — Adjectives are formed from the names of towns, by the 

addition of the following suffixes : 

1. Ensi- (n. s. -ensis), Cannensi- (Canna-, jt?Z.), Comensi- (Como-, n.\ 
Sulmonensi- (Sulmon-). 



576. — 2. Ino- (n. s. -inus), from names of towns in «&-, io-, neut. 
Amerino- (Ameria-), Caudino- (Caudio-, n.). 



186 DEKIVATION OF VEEBS. [577-582 

577.-3. Ano- (n. s. anus), from names of towns in a-, and some 
in o-. 

Romano- (Roma-), Thebano- (Theba-, pl\ Tusculano- (Tusculo-, n.\ 
Fundano- (Fundo- m. pi). 

57^ # _4. At(i-) (71. s. -as), chiefly from names of towns in no-, neut., 
but sometimes from those in na-. 

Arpmat(i-) (Arplno-, n.), Capenat(i-) (Capena-), Fidenat(i-) (Fi- 
dena- pi). 

5¥9.—Note. 1. In adjectives derived from the names of Greek towns, 
the Greek suffixes are often retained. The most common is io- y 
Corinthio- (Corintho-). 

2. These adjectives are also used as patriot nouns, to denote the 
inhabitants : 

Athenienses, the Athenians ; Roman!, the Romans. 

5£0. —Sometimes adjectives in ico- (n. s. -ieus), are formed from the 
names of people, especially when the latter are used only as substantives: 
Gallico- Gallic (Gallo-), Arabico- Arabic (Arab-). 

581.— Note.— The names of countries are usually derived from those 
of the people : Hispania-, Spain (Hispano-). Adjectives in ensi-, ano-, 
derived from such names, denote some relation to the country, not to the 
people: exercitus Hispaniensis, "an army stationed in Spain" (not "a 
Spanish army," which would be exercitus Hispfmicus). Similarly, Galh- 
canae legidnes, of the Roman forces in Gaul, but Gallica auxilia, of the 
Gallic troops. 



DERIVATION OF VERBS. 
I. Verbs derived from Substantives and Adjectives. 

582.— I. Derivative Transitive Verbs are usually of the 
First Conjugation. They signify to make what the substantive or adjective 
denotes : 

Matura- make ripe (maturo) ; libera-, make free (libero-). 

Note. — A few verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are similarly formed : 

Tun-, finish (fini-) ; molli-, soften (molli-). 

582. — 2. Many Deponents of the First Conjugation are formed in the 
same way, and signify to be, or to provide one's self with, what the substan- 
tive or adjective denotes : 

Ancilla-, Dep., be a hand-maid (ancilla-); aqua-, Dep., fetch water 
(aqua-). 



583-590] DERIVATION OF VERBS. 187 

583.-3. Derivative Intransitive Verbs are usually of the 

Second Conjugation : - 

Calve-, be bald (calvo-) ; albe- be white (albo-). 
Note. — Many verbs of this class are only found as inceptives. (588.) 



II. Verbs derived from Verbs. 

Of these there are four classes : 

584:. — 1. Frequentative Verbs express the repetition of an 
action, and are formed by adding ita- to the first stern of the first conju- 
gation, and to the third stem of the other conjugations, the final vowels of 
the stems being dropped : 

Clamita- cry out often (clama-) ; lectita, read often (leg- 3. lecto-). 

585. — JVote: 1. Many frequentatives, particularly from verbs of Conj. 
III., simply change o of the third stem into a. Cursa- run often (curr-, 
3. curso-). 

586. — 2. Sometimes ita- is added to the first stem of verbs of Conj. 
III. Agita-, move often (ag-) ; quaerita-, inquire often (quaer-). 

587 • — 3. There are a few verbs in ess- or iss-, which express intensi- 
fied action : Capess-, catch eagerly (cap-) ; petiss-, seek earnestly (pet-). 

588.-2. Inceptive (or Inchoative) Verbs express the be- 
ginning of an action or state, and are formed by adding asc-, esc-, isc- 
to the stems of nouns as well as of verbs, the stem-vowel being omitted : 

Labasc-, begin to totter (laba-) ; calesc-, grow warm (cale-) ; tremisc-, 
begin to tremble (trem-) ; obdormisc- get sleepy (dormi-) ; senesc- grow 
old (sen-) ; puerasc-, become a, boy (puero-) ; duresc-, become hard (duro-). 

^ SO. — 3. Desiderative Verbs express desire after a thing, and 
are formed by changing o of the third stem into uri- : esuri-, desire to eat 
(ed-, 3. eso-) ; scripturi- desire to write (scrib-, 3. scripto-). 

Note. — By analogy is formed Sullaturi- y "desire to play the part 
of Sulla." 

590, — 4=. Diminutive Verbs express a diminution or pettiness 
of the action. They end in ilia-. Cantilla- sing gently (canta-) ; sorbilla-, 
sip (sorbe-) ; conscrlbilla-, scribble (conscrib-). 



188 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. [591-599 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

59 1, — Adverbs in e are derived from adjectives with stems in o: 
Modeste, modestly (modesto-); pulcre, beautifully (pulcro-); docte, 
learnedly (docto-). 

592.— Note. 1. From bono-, malo-, come bene, " well," male, " ill," 
with e short / so also superne, infeme, from superno-, inferno-. 

593.-2. Some adjectives in o have adverbs ending in ter as well 
as in e: 

Duro- has dure and diiriter, severely. 
Firmo- u firme " firmiter, firmly. 

Largo- " large " largiter, bounteously. 

Violento- has only violenter, violently. 

594. — Adverbs in 5 are derived from adjectives in o-, and are 

really ablatives sing. : 

Falso, falsely (falso-) ; tuto, safely (tuto-). 

Note. — The form in 6 is rare. From some adjectives come adverbs both 
in 6 and in e, but with a difference of meaning : certo, certainly, certe, at 
any rate ; vero, in truth, indeed ; vere, truly. 

595. — Adverbs in ter are formed from adjectives of the third 
declension : 

Graviter, heavily (gravi-) ; feliciter, happily (felic(i-)). 

Note. — If the stem of the adjective ends in t, one t is omitted : sapienter, 
wisely (sapient-). 

596. — The neuter nom. sing, of many adjectives is used ad- 
verbially : facile, easily ; recens, lately ; multum, much. 

597 '• — Adverbs in itus are derived from nouns, and denote pro- 
ceeding from something : coelitus, from heaven (coelo-) ; radicitus, from 
the roots (radic-). 

598* — Adverbs in tim are formed from nouns and verbs, and de- 
note way or manner : 

Cetervatim, in troops (ceterva-) ; prlvatim, as a private person (privato-) ; 
statim, immediately (sta-); punctim, with the point (puncto-). So also 
passim, everywhere (passo-). 

59 9. — Certain cases of nouns are used adverbially : jure, rightly 
( jus-) ; injuria, unjustly (injuria-) ; forte, by chance (fort-) ; noctu, by 
night; tempori, seasonably. The last is also written temperl, with a com- 
parative temperius. 

Adverbs formed from numerals are given in 207. 



600-606] composition of words. 189 

600. — Adverbs of position are formed from the demonstrative 
pronouns, with their regular differences of relation to the speaker. (240.) 

(1) Hie, here. hue, hither. hinc, hence. 

(2) Istic, there. istuc, thither. istinc, thence. 

(3) Illlc, there. illuc, thither. illinc, thence. 



COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 

601. — A compound word is formed of two or more roots. 

Sometimes a substantive and an adjective, both of which are declined, 
or a genitive and the substantive on which it depends, are written together ; 
but these are not genuine compounds. 

Respublica, gen. relpublicae, the commonwealth. 

Jusjurandum, gen. jurisjiirandl, an oath. 

Sen atus-consul turn, a resolution of the Senate. 

Aquae-ductus, a water-channel. 

Legis-lator, a legislator. 

602* — The first part of a compound word may consist of any part of 
speech ; but a verb is only found in the first part, when fac, " make," is 
the second ; as, arefac-, make dry ; calefac-, make warm, etc. 

The roots fac-, "make,"/cr-, "bring," col-, "cultivate," can-, "sing," 
are used in the second part of many compound words, and a connecting 
vowel is often employed, generally i : 

Artifec- artist (art-, fac-). 
Letifero-, death-bearing (leto-, fer-). 
Agricola-, husbandman (agro-, col-). 
Tubicen-, trumpeter (tuba-, can-). 

603, — In the great majority of compound words, the first part is a 
preposition. Prepositions in composition experience certain euphonic 
changes, of which the most common is the assimilation of the final conso- 
nant of the preposition to the initial consonant of the word with which it is 
combined: alloquor/or ad-loquor. 

604:. — A, ab, abs. — A is used before m and v (a-moveo, a-veho); ab 
before vowels and most consonants (ab-igo, ab-diico); abs before c and t 
(abs-condo, abs-tulit) ; as (for abs) before p (as-porto). 

603. — Ad remains unchanged before b, d, j, m, v (ad-bibo, ad-do, 
ad-jungo, ad-mitto, ad-volo). The d is assimilated before most other con- 
sonants (ac-cedo, ag-gero, ap-pono, ac-quiro, as-sisto). The d is often 
omitted before sc y sp, st, and gn (a-spicio, a-scendo, a-strictus, a-gnosco). 

606. — Com (for cum) remains unchanged before labials (p, b, m), 
(com-pOno, com-bibo, com-mitto). The m is assimilated before I, n y r 



190 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [607-615 

(col-ligo, con-necto, cor-ruo). The m is changed to n before other conso- 
nants (con-fero, con-gero, con-traho), but is dropped before vowels, h, and 
gn (co-eo, eo-hibeo, co-gnosco). 

607* — Ex (ec, e). — Ex is used before vowels and the consonants 
c, p, q, s, t (ex-eo, ex-culpo, ex-pono, ex-qulro, ex-solvo, ex-traho). Ec 
is used with assimilation before / (ef-fero). E is used before the other 
consonants (e-jicio, e-ligo). 

608. — In. — The n is assimilated before / and r (il-ludo, ir-rumpo): 
is changed into m before labials (/>, 6, m), im-pono, im-buo, im-mitto): is 
dropped before gn (i-gnosco). Before other consonants and vowels it re- 
mains unchanged (in-sero, in-fero, in-eo). 

609. — Inter undergoes assimilation only in the verb intel-ligo, and 

its derivatives. 

610. — Ob undergoes assimilation before c, /, g, p (oc-curro, 
of-fero, og-gero, op-p5no) ; b is dropped in o-mitto ; and an old form, obs y 
occurs in a few words (obs-olesco, os-tendo for obs-tendo). 

611. — Per undergoes assimilation only in pel-licio, and sometimes 
in pel-luceo, with their derivatives : r is omitted in pe-jero. 

612. — Sub undergoes assimilation before c, /, g y p, and often be- 
fore m and r (sue-curro, suf-ficio, sug-gero, sum-mitto, sup-pono, sur- 
ripio); b is dropped before sp (su-spicio) ; sus (for subs) occurs in a few 
words (sus-pendo, sus-tulit). 

613. — Trans drops s before s (tran-silio), and is often shortened 
to tra before c?, j, n (tra-do, tra-jicio, tra-no). 

Inseparable Prepositions. (486) : 

614. — Amb. — B is dropped before p (am-puto), amb becomes an 
before palatals (c, qu) and / (an-ceps, an-quiro, an-fractus), and sometimes 
takes i (a'mbi-viam). 

613. — Dis, Di. — Dis is used before c, p, q, t, s, followed by a vowel, 
and with assimilation before / (dis-curro, dis-pono, dis-quiro, dis-traho, 
dis-sero, dif-fero) ; s is changed to r in dir-imo, dir-ibeo (habeo). 

Re, Red. — Red- is used before vowels and h (red-eo, red-itus, red- 
hibeo) ; also in red-do. 



PART THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 

616. — Syntax is that part of Grammar wliicli 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

) 1. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

2. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not mak- 
ing complete sense ; as, In truth, in a word. 

3. Sentences are of three kinds: simple, compound, and 
compleoc* 

4. A simple sentence contains only a single statement ; as, Life is 
short. 

5. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together, but mutually independent ; as, Life is short, but art is long. 

6. A complete sentence contains two simple sentences, of which one 
is dependent on the other ; as, Life, which is short, should be well employed. 

7. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate. 

8. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It is either in 
the nominative case before a finite verb, or in the accusative before the 
infinitive. 

9. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. It is 
either contained in the verb itself ; as, John reads ; or it consists of an 
intransitive verb, with an adjective or noun following it ; as, Time is short ; 
they became poor ; he is a scholar. An. and Pr. Gr., 594. 

10. Both the subject and predicate may be attended by other words, 
called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the meaning of the 
word with which they may stand connected ; as, u An inordinate desire of 
admiration, often produces a contemptible levity of deportment." 



192 PAKTS OF SYNTAX. [617-620 

11. When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is sus- 
pended till the whole be finished, it is called a period. 

12. The analysis of sentences is the same in Latin as in English. See 
139D, and " Analytical and Practical English Grammar," 591-657. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

• 01 7. — 1. In every sentence there must be a verb in the indicative, 
subjunctive, imperative, or infinitive mood ; and a subject expressed or 
understood. 

2. Every adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must have a 
substantive expressed or understood, with which it agrees. (651.) 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which it 
refers, and with which it agrees. (683.) 

4. Every subject-nominative has its own verb expressed or 
understood. (634, 643.) The predicate-nominative or complement, is 
usually placed after the substantive verb. (667.) 

5. Every finite verb, i. e., every verb in the indicative, subjunctive, 
or imperative mood, has its own nominative, expressed or understood 
(643), and when the infinitive has a subject, it is in the accusative. The 
infinitive without a subject does not form a sentence or proposition. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word, expressed or 
understood in the sentence of which it forms a part ; or is used, without 
government, to express certain circumstances. 



PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

618. — The Parts of Syntax are commonly- 
reckoned two : Concord, or agreement, and Gov- 
ernment. 

619. — Concord is the agreement of one word with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

620. — Government is that power which one word 
has in determining the mood, tense, or case, of another 
word. 



I 621-625] A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 193 

I. CONCORD. 
621.— Concord, or agreement, is fourfold ; viz. : 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive ; 

2. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject ; 

3. Of an adjective with a substantive; 

4. Of a relative with its antecedent. 

A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 
622. — Kule I. Apposition. — Substantives 
denoting the same person, or thing, agree in 
; case, and the adjunct is called an appositive; 

as — 

Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. 

Ciceronis ordtoris, Of Cicero the orator, etc. 

Urbs Athenae, The city Athens. 

Urbis Athendrum, Of the city Athens. 

023, — Explanation. — Substantives thus used are said to be in ap- 
1 position. The second substantive is added to express some attribute or 
description belonging to the first, and must always be in the same member 
of the sentence; i. e., they must be both in the subject, or both in the pred- 
icate. A substantive predicated of another, though denoting the same 
thing, is not in apposition with it, and does not come under this rule. 
(666, 667.) 

This rule applies to all substantive words, such as personal and relative 
pronouns, adjectives used substantively, etc. 

Nouns in apposition are often connected, in English, by such particles 
as as, being, for, like, etc. ; as, Pater misit me comiiem, " My father sent 
me as a companion," "/or a companion," etc. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

024, — Obs. 1. In gender an appositive agrees with the noun it 
limits, if it have distinct forms for the genders, i. e., if it be a mobile 
noun (40) ; as, Sederunt inventor Ulysses, " Ulysses contriver of crimes ; " 
Oleae inventrix Minerva, " Minerva inventress of the olive." 

625* — Obs. 2. In number an appositive generally agrees with its 
noun, but not always ; as, Omilto illds omnium doctrlndrum inventrices 
Athcnds, "I omit the great inventress of all sciences, Athens;" Captivi 
praeda fuerant, " The prisoners had been a prey." 

9 



19i THE NOMINATIVE CASE. [626-633 

626.— Obs. 3. Two or more nouns in the singular, have a 
noun in apposition in the plural ; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribunj 
plebis " Marcus Antonius, Caius Cassius, tribunes of the people." Also if 
the singular nouns be of different genders, the plural in apposition will 
have the masculine rather than the feminine, if both forms exist ; as, Ad 
Ptolemaeum et Cleopatram regis (not reglnas), legatl missi.—LiY. 

627.— Obs. 4. The substantive pronoun, having a word in apposition, 
is frequently omitted; as, Consul dixi (scil. ego), "(1) the consul said." 

628.— Obs. 5. The possessive pronoun, being equivalent to 
the genitive of the personal, has a noun in apposition with it in the geni- 
tive ; as, Pectus tuum, hominis simplicis, " The heart of you, a plain man," 
cf. 692. 

629. — Obs. 6. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, of 
which the noun in apposition expresses the parts ; as, Onerariae, pars 
ad JEgimurum, — aliae adversus urbem ipsam delatae sunt, " The ships of 
burden were carried, part to iEgimurus, — others over against the city 
itself." So, Quisquepro se queruniur, " TJiey complain each for himself." 

630. — Obs. 7. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one 
of the substantives ; as, Cogitet orator em instUul, rem arduam, " Let him 
consider that an orator is training, a difficult matter." 



EXCEPTIONS. 

631. — Exc. 1. Rarely the latter substantive is put in thejjenitive f 

as, virtus continentiae, " the virtue of self-restraint ; " amnis Eridanl, " the 
river Eridanus ; " arbor ficl, " the fig tree ; " nomen Mercuril est miliL 

632. — Exc. 2. A proper name after the generic term nomen, or 
cognomen, sometimes elegantly takes the case of the person in the dative ; 
as, Nomen Arcturo est mihi, " I have the name Arcturus." — Plaut. So, Cul 
nunc cognomen Iulo additur, " to whom the name lulus is given." — Virg. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

633. — The nominative case is used : 

1. To express the subject of a proposition ; 

2. In apposition with another substantive in the nomi- 
native, or predicated of it ; 

3. In exclamations ; as, vir fortis atque amicus ! 



634-641] THE VEKB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 195 

THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 
634. — Rule II. A Verb agrees with its nom- 
inative in number and person ; as, 

Ego lego, I read. Nos legimus, We read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest. Vos scrlbitis, Ye write. 

llle loquitur, He speaks. Ell loquuniur, They speak. 

035. — Explanation. — The subject of a finite verb, being a noun, a 
pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, is put in the nominative case. 
The subject may also be an infinitive mood or part of a sentence. To all 
of these the rule applies, and requires that the verb be in the same number 
and person as the subject, or nominative. For person, see 31. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

^ 636*— Obs. 1. Subject Omitted.— The nominatives ego, nos, 
of the first person, and tu, vos, of the second, are generally omitted, 
being obvious from the personal endings of the verb ; also the nominative 
of the third person, when it is an indefinite word, or may be easily supplied 
from the context ; as, ferunt, " they say ; " etc. 

037' — Obs. 2. The subject is also said to be omitted when the 
verb expresses the state of the weather, or an operation of nature ; as, ful- 
gurat, "it lightens ;" pluit, "it rains;" ningit, "it snows." These are 
called impersonal verbs. (451, 456.) 

038. — Obs. 3. Other impersonal verbs are usually considered as 
without a nominative. Still, they will generally be found to bear a relation 
to some circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or infinitive mood, 
similar to that between a verb and its nominative ; as, delectat me studere, 
"it delights me to study," i. e., "to study delights me." 

039. — Obs. \. Verb Omitted. — The verb is sometimes omitted 
when the nominative is expressed, and sometimes when it is understood ; 
as, nam ego Polydorus (sc. sum), " for I (am) Polydorus ; " — omnia praeclara 
vara (sc.sunt), "all excellent things (are) rare;" — turn Me (sc. respondit), 
" then he (replied)." 

040. — Obs. 5. Sentence as Subject. — When the subject is an 
infinitive, or a clause of a sentence, the verb is in the third person singu- 
lar ; and if a compound tense (i. e., in one of the tenses of the perfect pass- 
ive (281), or of the periphrastic conjugation (328), the participle is put in 
the neuter gender ; as, incerlum est quam longa nostrum cT/jusque vita 
futura sit, " how long any of us shall live is uncertain." 

041. — Obs. 6. Nominative with Infinitive. — The nomina- 
tive is sometimes found with the infinitive, in which case coepit, or coeperunt, 
"began," or some other verb, according to the sense, is often said to be 



196 SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. [642-646 

understood ; as, omnes invidere mihi, " every one envied me." The infinitive 
with the nominative before it, is so common in historical narrative, that it is 
called the historical infinitive. Thus used, it is translated as the 
imperfect, or the perfect indefinite, for which tenses it seems to be used, 
and with which it is sometimes connected. (1137.) 

64:2. — Obs. 7. Videor 9 'm the sense of " I seem," is used throughout 
as a personal verb, but is often rendered impersonally ; as, videor esse liber ', 
" it seems that lorn free," literally, " I seem to be free." 



SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

Of Agreement in Number and Person. 
643. — Rule III. Two or more Substantives 

singular, taken together, have a verb in the plu- 
ral ; taken separately, the verb is usually singu- 
lar; as, 

(Taken together.) 
Furor Iraque mentem praecipitant, Fury and rage hurry on my mind. 

(Taken separately.) 
Si Socrates out Antisthenes dicer et, If Socrates or Antisthenes should say. 

644:. — Obs. 1. Sometimes the verb agrees with the nominative 
nearest to it 9 and is understood to the rest, especially when each of the 
nominatives is preceded by et or turn, or when they denote things without 
life ; as, Mens enim, et ratio, et consilium, in senibus est, " For intellect and 
reason, and wisdom, are {lit is) in the aged." 

645. — Obs. 2. A substantive in the nominative singular, connected 
with another in the ablative by cum, may be treated as a plural ; 

as, Remo cum frdtre Quirlnus jura dabunt, " Romulus and (lit. with) his 
brother Remus will dispense justice," cf. 657. 

646.— Obs. 3. When the nominatives are of different per- 
sons, the verb is commonly plural, and takes the first person rather than 
the second, and the second rather than the third ; as, Si tu et Tullia valetis, 
ego et Cicero valemus, " If you and Tullia (i. e. ye) are well, Cicero and I 
(i. e. we) are welV 



647-651] AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 197 

But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative, and 

is understood to the rest, and always so, when the verb has different modi- 
fications with each nominative ; as, Ego miser e, tic feliciter vivis, " I (live) 
unhappily, you live happily." 

64:7* — Obs. 4. In Latin the First Person always takes precedence of 
the Second. Thus, " My king and I " is in Latin, Ego et rex meus. 



648. — Rule IV. 1. A Collective Noun ex- 
pressing many as one whole, generally has a 
verb in the singular ; as, 

Popalus me sibilat, The people hiss at me. 

Senatus in curiam venit, The Senate came into the Senate-house. 

2. But when it expresses many as individ- 
uals, the verb must be plural ; as, 

Pars epulis onerant mensas. Part load the tables with food. 

Turba ruunt, The crowd rush. 

Veniunt leve vidgus euntque, The fickle populace come and go. 

649. — Obs. 5. Sometimes both singular and plural are joined with the 
same word ; as, Turba ex eo loco dilabtbalur, refractdrosque carcerem mi- 
nabantur, " The mob scattered from that place, and threatened to break 
open the prison." 

AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

650. — Rule V. An Adjective agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case ; as, 

Bonus vir, a good man. Bonds vivos, good men. 

Bona puella, a good girl. Bonarum legum, of good laws. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tuis donis, with thy gifts. 

651. — Explanation. — This rule applies to all adjectives, adjective 
pronouns, and participles ; and requires that they be in the same gender, 
number, and case, with their substantives. It applies, also, when the sub- 
stantive is in the subject, and the adjective in the predicate. (666.) The 
word " substantive," in this rule, includes personal and relative pronouns, 
and all words or phrases used as substantives. 



198 observations. [652-658 

OBSERVATIONS. 
652.— Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, un- 
less taken separately, have an adjective plural ; a3, 

Vir etpuer territl lupo, A man and a boy terrified by a wolf. 

053.— -Obs. 2. If all the substantives be of the same gender, 

the adjectives will be of that gender, as in the example above. But if the 
substantives are of different genders, the adjective takes the mas- 
culine rather than the feminine, and the feminine rather than the neuter ; 
as, 
Pater mihi, et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. — Ter. 

654. — Obs. 3. But if they denote things without life 9 the adjec- 
tive is commonly neuter. And, if some of the substantives refer to 
things with life, and others to things without life, the adjective is either 
neuter, or takes the gender of the thing or things with life ; as, 

Labor volupiasque sunt dissimilia Toil and pleasure are unlike in 

naturdy nature. 

Naves et captivl ad Chium capta The ships and captives were taken 

sunt at Chios. 



Numidae atque militclria signa obs- The Numidians and their military 
curall sunt, standards were partially concealed. 

055. — Also, the neuter is used frequently when the nouns denoting 
things are of the same gender ; as, Ira et avuritia imperio potentiora erant, 
" Anger and avarice were too strong for control." — Liv. 

050. — Obs. 4. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees with the 
nearest noun, and is understood to the rest ; as, Sociis et rege receptd, 
Virg., " Our companions and king being recovered." 

057* — Note 1. — Sometimes two nouns connected with each other by 
cum, are treated like a plural, and have a plural adj. agreeing with them 
(653) ; as, Flliam cumfllio accilos, * The son and daughter being sent for." 
— Liv., cf. 645. 

058. — Obs. 5. When the substantive to which the adjective, or ad- 
jective pronoun, belongs may be easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, 
and the adjective, assuming its gender, number, and case, is often used as a 
substantive, and may have an adjective agreeing with it ; as — 



659-6 64] OBSEE VATIOSTS. 



199 



Mortdlis {homo), a mortal. Ilk (homo), he. 

Superl (dii), the gods above. Eli {hominis), they. 

Dexira {manus), the right hand. Hie (homo), he. 

Sinistra {manus), the left hand. Haec {mulier), she. 

Omnia alia, all other (things). Familidris mens {amicus), my inti- 

mate friend. 

659.— Obs. 6. The adjective, when used as a predicate, without a 
substantive or definite object, is used in the neuter gender; as, 
Triste lupus stabulis, The wolf is a sorry thing to the folds. 

— VlRG. 

Twpitudo pejus est quam dolor, Disgrace is a worse thing than pain. 

— Cic. 
This case comes under 666. 

660.— Obs. 1. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and words 
considered merely as such (35), when used substantively, take an 
adjective in the neuter gender ; as, 

Supremum vale dixit, Ovid, He pronounced a last farewell. 

Crcis ktud quando venit, Mart., When does that to-morrow come? 

Excepto quod non simul esses, Hor., That you were not present being ex- 
cepted. 

661. — Obs. 8. A substantive is sometimes used as an adjective ; as 
populum late regem (for regnantem), " a people of extensive sway ; " nemo 
(for nullus) miles Bomanus, " no Roman soldier." 

662.— Obs. 9. Such adjectives as primus, rnedius, ultimus, extrlmus^ 
• tmus, mmmus, reliqmcs, sometimes denote a particular part of an 
object ; as, media nox, " the middle of the night ; " summus mons, " the top 
of the mountain." 

663. — Obs. 10. Some adjectives denoting the time or circumstances 
of an action, such as libens, glad; sciens, knowing; imprudens, unwitting; 
etc. ; are used in the sense of adverbs : as, prior venit, " he came first 

of the two." ' J 

664:. — Obs. 11. Alius, though an adjective, is often used as a pro- 
noun, and has this peculiarity of construction, that, when repeated with a 
different word in the same clause, it renders the one simple proposition 
to which it belongs equivalent to two, and it is to be so rendered ; thus, 
aliud aliis videtur optimum, "one thing seems best to some, another seems 
best to others." Or the two simple sentences may be combined in a plural 
form ; thus, " different things seem best to different persons ; " etc. The 
same is true when a word derived from alius, such as aliunde, aliter, alio, 
is put with it in the same clause ; as, aliis aliunde perlculum est, " there is 
danger to one person from one souree, and to another from, another ;" or 
combined, " there is danger to different jwsons from different sources" 



200 THE PKEDICATE. [665-669 

665.— Obs. 12. When alius is repeated in a different clause, 

but in the same construction, the first is to be rendered " one," the second, 
"another;" if plural, "some, "others;" as, aliud est maledlcere, aliud 
accusdre, "it hone thing to rail at, another to accuse." — CiC. Proferebant 
alii purpuram, thus alii, "some brought forth purple, others incense." In- 
stead of alii — alii, etc., in the plural, we have sometimes pars — alii ; par- 
ti m — alii ; sometimes alii— pars, alii — partim, " some," " others," etc. ; 
and sometimes the first of the pair is omitted. 

This remark is applicable to alter ; but alius signifies one of many ; 
alter, one op two ; as, quorum alter exercitum perdidit, alter+vendidit, " one 
of whom destroyed an army, the other sold one." 



THE PREDICATE. 

666. — Rule VI. The predicate substantive 
or adjective, after a verb, is put in the same case 
as the subject before it, and is called a comple- 
ment; as, 

Ego sum discipulus, I am a scholar. 

Tu vocdris Joannes, Thou art called John. 

Ilia incedit regina, She walks (as) a queen. 

667' — Explanation. — A verb takes a predicate noun when the verb 
by itself does not make a complete assertion, e. g : Brutus is — evidently 
requires a substantive or adjective with is to complete its meaning; 
thus, Brutus is good ; Brutus is consul. The noun or adjective so added 
is called a complement, because it completes the assertion. Such 
verbs are sum, I am ; evddo, I turn out ; and passive verbs of appointing, 
naming, regarding, etc., such as creor, I am elected ; appellor, I am called, 
etc. These are called copulative verbs, because they act as a bond 
or connection between the noun in the subject and the complement. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

668. — Obs. 1. Any copulative verb between ttVO nominatives 

of cliff 'event numbers^ commonly agrees in number with the former, 
or subject; as, Dos est decern lalenta, " Her dowry is ten talents." — Ter. 
Omnia pontics erartt, " All was sea." — Ovid. But sometimes with the latter, 
or predicate ; as, Amantium irae amOris integrdtio est, " The quarrels of 
lovers is a renewal of love." 

669. — (a.) So also, when the nouns are of different genders, 

an adjective, adjective pronoun, or a participle, in the predicate, commonly 
agrees with the subject of the verb ; as, Oppidum appelldtum est Posld<,uia, 






670-677] OBSERVATIONS. 201 

• 

" The town was called Posidonia ; " but sometimes with the predicate ; as, 
Non omnis error stultitia dicenda est, " Not every sort of mistake should be 
called folly."— Cic. 

670. — (6.) The verb esse sometimes takes an adverb in the 

predicate, where, in English, an adjective is commonly used ; as, ea res 
frustrfc fait, " that was of no avail ; " si vales bene est, " if you are in good 
health it is well." 

67 'l.—Obs. 2. When the predicate is an adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb according to Rule V. (650); except as noticed in the observations 
under that Rule, particularly 659. 

672. — Obs. 3. When the subject is of the second person, and the 
vocative stands before the verb, the adjective or participle will usually be 
in the nominative, according to the rule ; as, esto IR, Caesar, amicus, " be 
thou, Caesar, our friend ; " but sometimes it is put in the vocative ; as, 
Quibus, Hector, ab oris expectdte venis, " From what shores, Hector, dost 
thou come long waited for" (Yirg.), for expeclatus. Hence the phrase, 
Made virtute esto, " Be thou exalted for thy valor," for mactus. 

673. — Obs. 4. The noun opus, commonly rendered "needful,'* is often 
used as a predicate after sum ; as, dux nobis opus est, " a leader is wanted 
by us." (925.) 

674:. — Obs. 5. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the 
subject of the preceding verb, it is often omitted, in which case the pred- 
icate after the infinitive is in the nominative agreeing with the preced- 
ing subject ; as, cupio did doctus, " I desire to be called learned." See 
Gr. Gram., § 175, 3. 

6'7£. — Obs. 6. The accusative or dative before the infinitive 

under this Rule, strictly requires the same case after it in the predicate ; as, 

Kdvimus te esse foriem, We know that thou art brave. 

Mihi negligenti non esse licet, I am not allowed to be negligent. 

676. — Obs. 7. When the infinitive of such verbs has a dative before 
it, it may be followed either by a dative or an accusative ; as, licet mihi esse 
betito ; or, licet mihi esse befdum, " T may be happy." In the first case, 
befdo agrees with mihi ; in the second, befdum agrees with me, to be sup- 
plied as the subject of esse. With licet the dative is more usual than the 
accusative. Other verbs which sometimes have the same construction are : 
expedit, "it is expedient;" datur, " it is granted ; " vacat, "there is lei- 
sure;" prodest, " it is profitable," etc. Sometimes, when the sentence is 
indefinite, the dative also is understood ; as, licet esse befdum (sc. alicui), 
1 one may be happy." See Gr. Gram., § 175, Obs. 5. 

677. — Obs, 8. This variety of case after the infinitive, is admissible 
only with the nominative, dative, and accusative. The other cases before 
the infinitive have the accusative after it, agreeing with the subject of the 
infinitive understood ; as, interest omnium (se) esse bonds, " it is the interest 
of all to be good." 
9* 



202 THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. [678-683 

EXCEPTIONS. 
678, — Construction according to Sense (ad synesim). — 
Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender or number 

from its substantive, tacitly referring to its meaning rather than to its 
form ; as, 

Latium Capuaqne agrd mulctdti, " Latium and Capua were deprived of 
their land," ?. e., the people of Latium, etc. ; Capita conjurdtionis virgis 
caesi, " the heads (?'. e. y the leading men) of the conspiracy were beaten to 
death," etc. 

67.9. — Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular, if its verb is 
plural (648), has an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of the indi- 
viduals which form the collection ; as, 

Pars in Jiumen acti sunt, " A part were forced into the river." Rarely 
it takes the gender of the individual in the singular ; as, pars arduus eqicis 
furit, "some rush furiously raised high on horses." — Virg. 

680, — Exc. 3. A plural noun or pronoun, used to denote one person, 
in comic writers, sometimes has an adjective or participle in the singular; 
as, Nobis praesente, " I being present." 

681* — Exc. 4. The adjective pronouns uterque, quisque, etc., in the 
singular, are often put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects 
are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, Uterque eorum ex eastrU 
exercitum educuni, u They lead forth, each of them, his army from the 
camp ; " Pro se quisque qucruntur, " They complain, each one for himself." 
Quisque, in the singular, not only distributes plural nouns, but is in the 
nominative when the plural to be distributed is in the ablative absolute ; 
as, Multis sibi quisque imperium petentibus, "Many seeking power each for 
himself," Sall., Jug., 18 ; or in the accusative, as the subject of the infini- 
tive ; as, Affirmants se . . . . quisque patriam .... relicturos, " Asserting 
that they would leave each his country." 

082. — Exc. 5. When ipse qualifies a substantive pronoun in a reflexive 
sense, in any oblique case governed by a verb or preposition, it commonly 
takes the case of the subject of the verb instead of the case of the word 
which it qualifies; as, Se ipse inter/ ecit, "He slew himself ; " Mild ipse 
faveo, " I favor myself'' 

THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. 

683. — Rule VII. The relative qui. quae, quod, 
agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and 
person; as, 

Ego qui scribo, I who write. 

Til qui legis, Thou who readest. 

Vir qui loquitur, The man who speaks. 

Viri qui loquuntur, The men who speak. 



684-691] OBSERVATIONS. 203 

084:, — Explanation. — The antecedent is the noun or pronoun going 
before the relative to which it refers. Sometimes, however, the relative 
and its clause are placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

The infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is sometimes the antecedent, 
in which case the relative must be in the neuter gender. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
085. — Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with the 
antecedent, but with the same word expressed or understood after the 
relative, with which, like the adjective, it agrees in gender, number, and 
case, as well as person ; thus, diem dlcunt, qua (die), etc., " they appoint a 
day, on which (day)," etc. Hence, in connecting the antecedent and rela- 
tive clause, the following variety of usage occurs, viz. : 

680. — 1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly ex- 
pressed in the antecedent clause, and not with the relative ; as, 
Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur, " He is a wise man, who speaks little." 

687 • — 2d. It is often elegantly omitted in the antecedent clause, 
and expressed with the relative, especially when the relative clause 
stands first ; as, In quern primum egressi sunt locum, Troja vocdiur, 
i. e., locus in quern, etc., " The place on which they landed first is 
called Troy." 

688. — 3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is ex- 
pressed in both / as, Erant omnxno itinera duo, quibus iliner- 
ibus exire possent, " There were in all two roads, by which (roads) 
they could go out." Instead of the first substantive, the relative 
sometimes takes with it a substantive explanatory of the first ; as, 
Cum venissem ad Amunum, qui mons-, " When I had come to Ama- 
nus, which mountain — ." 

689. — 4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is 
no danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative refers is 
understood in both clauses ; as, sunt quos juvat collegisse, i. e., 
sunt (homines) quos (homines) juvat, etc., w There are (men) whose 
joy it is to gather, etc." 

090. — Note. — The place of the antecedent is sometimes supplied by 
a distinctive pronoun in the clause following ; as, de qua re audivi, earn 
tibi narrabo, " I will tell you the matter about which I heard." The dis- 
tinctive has sometimes the force of talis, " such ; " and the relative, that 
of the corresponding qualis, " as ; " — the two implying a sort of compar- 
ison ; as, Itaque ego is sum in ilium, quern ta me esse vis, " Therefore I am 
towards him such as you wish me to be." — Cic. 

091 .— To this construction may be referred such expressions as qui 
tuus est amor, equivalent to, pro eo amore qui tuus est amor, " such is your 



204 observations. [692-699 

love," literally, " in accordance with such love as yours is ; " where the 
distinctive is, ea, id, in the sense of u such," is supplied with the antece- 
dent understood. 

692.— Obs. 2. a. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a 
preceding word ; as, omries laudare fortunas meas qui haberem, etc., " all 
were praising my fortune who had," etc., L e., fortunas mel qui ; thepos- 
sessive meas being equivalent to the genitive of ego. (cf. 628.) Conjura- 
vere pauci contra rempublicam, de qua (scil. conjuratione^ implied in conju- 
ravere) quam brevissime potero dlcam, " A few entered into a conspiracy 
against the republic, concerning which I will speak as shortly as I can." 

693. — b. The relative sometimes refers, not to a particular word, but 
to the whole antecedent proposition, or the idea expressed by it, in which 
case it takes the neuter gender; as, Tit amas virtutem, quod (i. e. ~ 
rem) valde laudo, "You love virtue, and in this I highly praise you." 



quam 



694:. — Obs. 3. When a relative refers to one or two nouns denoting 
the same object, but of different genders, it may agree with either ; 
as, Flumen est Avar quod, etc. Here quod agrees with Jiumen. Adfiumen 
Ossum perventam est, qui, etc. Here qui agrees with Ossum. 

695. — Obs. 4. The relative sometimes agrees with a complement 

(666) instead of its antecedent ; as, Thebae ipsae quod Boeotiae caput est, 
" Thebes which is the capital of Boeotia." — Liv. 

696. — Obs. 5. An adjective which properly belongs to the antece- 
dent, is sometimes placed in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative. 
This is the case, especially, if the adjective be a numeral, a comparative, or a 
superlative; as, inter jocos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for jocos inconditos qu5s, 
etc., |4 amidst the rude jests which they utter ; " — node, quam in terris idii- 
mam egit, for node ultima, quam, etc., " the last night which he spent upon 
earth." 

697* — Obs. 6. When a relative refers to two or more antece- 
dents taken together, it agrees with them in gender and number, in all 
respects as the adjective does with several substantives, as stated, 652-655. 
But, 

If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative plural takes the 
first person rather than the second, and the second person rather than the 
third. (647.) 

698. — Exc. 1. The relative, sometimes, takes the gender and 
number, not of the antecedent noun, but of some one synonymous with 
it or implied in it ; as, Daret ut catenls fdtale monstrum quae, " That he 
might consign to bonds the fatal monster, who — ." The antecedent is mon- 
strum, but quae agrees with Cleopatra, the monster intended. This is a 
case of construction according to sense. (678.) 

699. — Obs. 7. The relatives quicunque and quisquis are sometimes 
used instead of qui, when a general or indefinite term is expressed or 



700-705] CASE OF THE RELATIVE. 205 

understood with the antecedent ; as, quae sdnarl poterunt, quacunque ra- 
tione sdndbo, equivalent to omrii raiione quacunque (possum), " what can 
be cured, I will cure by every means I can." 

700» — This construction corresponds to that of the Greek bang (Gr. 
Gram., § 135, 1), and, like it, these relatives often represent two cases / 
as, Qiddquidtdigerat aurumfiebat, " Whatever he touched turned to gold." 
Here quidquid stands both as the nominative to flebat and the accusative 
after tetigerat, and is equivalent to omne quod tetigerat, etc. 

701, — Obs. 8. In the beginning of a sentence, or clause connected 
with what precedes, not by the relative itself, but by quum (cum), si, autem, 
quoniam, or other conjunctive term expressed or understood, the relative 
I assumes the character of a personal or demonstrative pro- 
noun, and, as such, refers to some word, clause, or circumstance, already 
expressed; thus — 

1st. When the relative thus used stands instead of its noun, it is equiv- 
alent to et ille, et hie, et is, et illi, etc., and may be rendered " and 
he," u and she," " and they," etc. ; as, qui quum admitteret, "and 
when he admitted ; " — ad quern quum venissent, " and when they had 
come to Mm." 

2d. When the relative thus used stands with its substantive, it is to be 
translated, as a demonstrative, by this, that, these, those, commonly 
preceded by and ; as, qui legati quum missl essent, " and when these 
ambassadors had been sent ; " — ad qwlrum milium si'vdrum quum 
Caesar pervenisset, " and when Caesar had come to the beginning of 
these tuoods." 

702, — To this construction belongs quod, in the beginning of a sen- 

| tence (apparently for propter quod, or ad quod), referring to something pre- 

i viously stated, and meaning " on account of," u with respect to," " as to, 

etc., this thing ; " as, quod dils grdtias habeo, u wherefore (i. e., on account 

of this thing), I give thanks to the gods ■ " — quod scrlbis (Cic), " as to what 

you write." 

CASE OF THE RELATIVE. 

70S.— Obs. 9. The relative, in respect of case 9 is always to be 
considered as a noun, and is subject to the rules which determine the case 
of nouns. 

y04. m — Exc. 2. The relative, after the manner of the Greek, is some- 
times attracted into the case of its antecedent ; as, Raplim, qnibus quis- 
quepoterat elatts, for (iis) quae quisque, etc., " Those things which each one 
could, being hastily snatched up." 

¥05. Exc. 3. The antecedent is sometimes inserted in agreement 

with the relative, and must be supplied in a different case in its own 
clause ; as, Urbem quam slatuo vestra est, for urbs quam statuo, etc., " The 
city which I am building is yours." 



208 GOVERNMENT. [706-709 

These are Greek constructions seldom used by Latin writers. See 
Greek Gr., § 135, Exc. 9, 10. 

?06. — Obs. 10. The relative adjectives quot, quantus, qualis, used 
in comparisons, and commonly rendered "as," are often construed in a man- 
ner similar to the relative (28*6), having their redditives, or corresponding ad- 
jectives, tot, tantus, talis, expressed or understood in the antecedent clause; 
as, Tantae mullitudinis qnantam capit nrbs, " Of as great a multitude as the 
city contains ; " Fades (talis), qudlem decet esse sororum, " The features, 
such as those of sisters ought to be." — Virg. 

The noun, as well as the redditive, is very often omitted in the antece- 
dent clause, and expressed in the relative clause ; as, Quanta potuit celeri- 
tate cucurrit, changed to the common form, is Tarda celeritdte, quanta 
potuit, cucurrit, " He ran with as much speed as he could." In this way, 
are to be explained such clauses as Quantum import auitdtis habent, " Such 
arrogance have they," in full form, Pro tanto importunitdtis quantum 
habent. 

707- — Note. — Instead of the relative adjectives quot, quantus, qualis, 
the conjunctions ac, atque, ut, and the relatives qui, quae, quod, in the sense 
of " as," are sometimes used in comparative expressions ; as, Honos tall pop- 
uli Rdmani voluntdte, paucJs est dcldtus ac mihi, "Office has been conferred 
on few with such good will of the Roman people as on me." — Cic. 

708, — Exc. 4. Instead of the ordinary construction, the relative ad- 
jective, with its noun, is sometimes attracted into the case of the relative 
pronoun understood, as in the following sentence : Si hominihus bondrum 
rerum tarda cur a esset, quanto studio pelunt, "If men had as much care for 
good things as they have zeal in their search," Sall., Jug., instead of quan- 
tum est studium quo aliena petunt : — unless this be a case of anacoluthon, 
the latter part of the sentence being expressed as if the former had been, 
Si homines bonds res pelereni, quanto studio, etc., i. e., tanto studio quanto, 
etc. (706.) Compare also 688. 



GOVERNMENT. 

709* — 1. Government is the power which one word has over an- 
other depending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain case, mood, 
or tense. 

2. The words subject to government are nouns and verbs* 

3. The words governing or affecting these in their case, mood, or tense, 
are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and words indeclinable. 

4. To the Syntax of nouns belongs all that part of Syntax relating to 
the government of case. Every thing else in government belongs to the 
Syntax of the verb. 



710-713] SYNTAX OF THE NOTTN. 207 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN". 

710. — In this part of Grammar, under the term noun or substantive, is 
comprehended every thing used as such ; namely, nouns, personal pronouns, 
adjective pronouns used personally, adjectives without substantives, gerunds, 
together with infinitives, and substantive clauses used as nouns. 

The construction of the oblique cases depends, in general, upon the 
particular ideas expressed by the cases themselves, as they are mentioned 
hereafter, under each case. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

711. — 1. The accusative, in Latin, is used to express the imme- 
diate Object of a transitive active verb — or, in other words, that on 
which its action is exerted. 

2. It is used to express the object to which something tends or relates, in 
which sense it is often governed by a preposition, expressed or understood. 



ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

712.— Rule VIII. Direct object.— A transi- 
tive verb, whether active or deponent, governs 
the accusative ; as, 

Ama Deum, Love God. 

Reverere parentes, Reverence your parents. 

Deus amatur, God is loved. 

Note. — The object of an active transitive verb becomes the subject of 
the same verb used passively. 



713.— Rule IX. Cognate accusative. — An 
intransitive verb may govern a noun of kin- 
dred signification, in the accusative ; as, 

Pugndre pugnam, To fight a battle. 



208 ACCUSATIVE AS COMPLEMENT. [714-718 

¥14:. — Explanation. — These rules apply to all verbs which have an 
accusative as their immediate object ; and that accusative may be any thing 
used substantively, whether it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or 
clause of a sentence. 

715.— Obs. 1. Accusative as complement.— Verbs signify- 
ing to name, choose, reckon, constitute, and the like, besides the accusative 
of the object, take also the accusative of the name, office, character, etc., 
ascribed to it ; as, urbem Romam vocavit, " he called the city Rome." All 
such verbs, in the passive, have the same case after as before them. (667.) 

710. — Obs. 2. Verbs commonly intransitive, are sometimes used 
in a transitive sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative un- 
der Rule VIII. ; thus, 

Intransitive. Transitive. 

Tremit, he trembles. Tremxt Junonem, he trembles at 

Juno. 
Sitio, I thirst. Sitio honores, I thirst for honors. 

Ridet, he laughs. Dolorem ridet, he laughs at pain. 

Redolet, he smells. Vinum redolet, he smells of wine. 

717* — Obs. 3. The accusative, after some intransitive verbs, seems to 
depend on a preposition understood ; as, Slygias juravimus un- 
das, "We swore by the Stygian waves ; " Navigat aequor, " He sails over 
the sea." — Virg. 

The accusative with intransitive verbs is most common with the 
neuters id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, illud, tantum, quantum, 
hoc, multa, alia, pauca, etc. ; as, idem gloriarl, " to make the same boast ; " 
utrumque laetor, li I rejoice at both things." 

718. — Obs. 4. The accusative, after many verbs, depends on a 
preposition with which they are compounded. This is the case — 

1st. With intransitive verbs; as, Gentes quae mare illud adja- 
cent, "The nations which border upon that sea." So, i?ieunt prae- 
lium, " they enter the battle ; " transcurrere mare, " to speed across 
the sea ; " etc. Thus compounded, many verbs become transitive in 
sense, and so govern the accusative by Rule VIII. 

2d. With transitive verbs, in which case two accusatives follow — 
one governed by the Verb, and another by the preposition ; as, 
Omnem equitdtum pontem transducit, " He leads all the cavalry over 
the bridge ; " — Hellespontum capias trajecit, " He threw his troops 
across the Hellespont." 



719-724] OBSERVATIONS. 209 

719. — Obs. 5. Some intransitive verbs, compounded with con, ex, 
prae, become transitive and govern the accusative ; as, neminem convent, 
"I have met no one;" modum excedere, "to exceed the limit; 7 ' Galll 
caeteros mortalls praestant, " The Gauls surpass the rest of men." 

720. — Obs. 6. a. The accusative after a transitive verb, especially 
if a reflexive pronoun, or something indefinite or easily supplied, is sometimes 
understood; as, turn prdra avertit, scil. se, "the prow turns aside;" 
faciam vilula, scil. sacra, " I will offer (sacrifice) with a heifer." 

b. Sometimes the verb which governs the accusative is omitted, 
especially in rapid or animated discourse ; thus, the interrogative quid often 
stands alone for quid ais ? quid censes ? or the like. So, also, quid vero ? 
quid igitur? quid ergo? quid enim? Quid, quod, commonly rendered 
44 nay," " nay even," " but now," " moreover," may be resolved thus, Quid 
dlcam de eo quod. With quid rnulta ? quid plura ? rie multa, ne plura, 
scil. verba, supply dlcam ; as, Quid dlcam multa (verba) ? 

721. — Obs. 7. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
often used as the object of a transitive verb (1119) ; as, 
Da mihi fallere, Give me to escape notice. 

Cupio me esse clementem, I desire to be gentle. 

Staiuerunt ut naves conscenderent, They determined that they would 

embark. 

722, — Note. — JProlepsis. — In such constructions, the subject of 
the clause is sometimes, by a Greek idiom, put in the accusative as the 
object of the verb ; as, Nostl Marcellum, quam tardus sit ; instead of Nostl 
quam tardus Marcellus sit, "• You know how slow Marcellus is." This is 
called prolepsis or anticipation. Gr. Gram., § 150, Obs. 4. 

723. — Obs. 8. A few cases occur in which the accusative is put after 
a noun derived from a verb, or the verbal adjectives in bundus j 
as, Quid tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum $ " Wherefore do you re- 
ceive my husband hither to you ? " — Plaut. Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem, 
44 Why have you any care for this thing ? " — Id. Vltdbundus castra, " Avoid- 
ing the camp." — Liv. 

724:. — Obs. 9. Many verbs considered transitive in Latin, are intran- 
sitive in English, and must have a preposition supplied in translating ; as, 
Ut caverel me, " That he should beware of me." On the other hand, many 
intransitive verbs in Latin, i. e., verbs which do not take an accusative 
after them, are rendered into English by transitive verbs ; as, Fortuna 
favet fortibus, " Fortune favors the brave." 



210 ACCUSATIVE OF NEARER DEFINITION. [725-732 

725. — Rule X. Accusative in Exclama- 
tions. — The accusative is used in exclamations, 
either with or without an interjection ; as, 

O vim maximam erroris, the enormous power of error ! 

Pro deorum fidem, In the name of the gods ! 

En quatuor ards, Lo four altars ! 

726. — Obs. 1. But en and ecce, "lo," are quite often found with the 
nominative ; as, ecce tuae llterae (sc. sunt) de Varrone, "lo your letter 
comes about Varro." — Cic. 

727. — Obs. 2. Hei and vae are construed with the dative; as, 
vae victls, " woe to the conquered." — Liv. Hei misero milii, "woe to 
wretched me." — Ter. 

728» — Rule XL Accusative of nearer defi- 
nition. — The accusative is used, especially by the 
poets, after verbs and adjectives to indicate the 
part of the subject specially affected; as, 

Equus (remit artus, The horse trembles in its limbs. 

Hannibal adversum femur ictus, H. wounded in the front of the thigh. 

729* — Explanation. — The verbs and adjectives referred to in the 
Rule are all static words, i. e., they describe a state, and the accusative 
tells the part of the subject which is chiefly in the state described. This is 
a construction imitated from the Greek, and is often called the GrreeTc 
accusative. 

730. — Obs. 1. In prose the ablative is the case generally used for 
such nearer definition : pedibus aeger, " diseased in the feet." See 889. 

731* — Obs. 2. Under this Rule may be placed the so-called ad- 
verbial accusative of such words as partem, vicem, secus, etc. ; as 
maximam partem lade atque pecore vwunt, "they live for the most part on 
milk and their cattle ; " tuam vicem saepe doleo, " I often grieve on your 
account ; " llberorum capitum virile secies ad decern millia capta, " ten thou- 
sand free persons of the male sex were taken." So, id aetatis, " of that 
age," id genus, " of that kind," for ejus aetatis, ejus generis. 

732. — Rule XII. Meflective Accusative. — 

Sometimes passive verbs are used in a middle 



733-738] VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 211 

(or reflective) sense, and govern the accusa- 
tive ; as, 

Inutile ferrum cingitur, He girds on (himself) his useless sword. 

733. — Explanation. — This construction occurs with verbs of clothing, 
unclothing, etc. ; such as, induo, exuo, etc. In the passive they are some- 
times used to imply that a person clothes or unclothes himself ; and when 
'used in this reflective sense they may take an accusative of the thing put 
on or off: Androgel geleam induitur, " He puts on the helmet of An- 
drogeos ; " but also the ablative, Spolils raptls induitur, " He is clad in 
plundered spoils." — Virg. 

VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

734. — Rule XIII. Accusative of Person 
and Thine/. — Verbs of asking, teaching, and 

concealing, govern two accusatives, the one of 
a person, and the other of a thing ; as, 

Poscimus te pacem, We beg peace of thee. 

Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar. 

Iter omnes celat, He conceals his road from all. 

735. — Explanation. — The reason of this Rule is, that most verbs 
under it, admit either of the nouns after them, as their immediate object. In 
the jjassive construction the accusative of the person becomes the 
nominative : Primus rogcitus est sententiam, " He was first asked his opinion." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

730* — Obs. 1. Verbs of asking, which govern two accusatives, are 
rogo, oro, exoro, obsecro, precor, posco, reposco, fiagito, etc. ; of teaching : 
doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, and rarely erudio. For two accusatives after verbs 
of naming, choosing, etc., see 715. 

737» — Obs. 2. Verbs of asking, instead of the accusative of the person, 
often take the ablative with ab or ex ; as, Veniam dremus ab ipso, " Let 
us beg favor of himself." So, also, instead of the accusative of the thing, 
many" verbs, both of asking and teaching, sometimes take the ablative with 
de ;*as, De itinere hostium Senuium tdocet, " He informs the Senate of the 
march of the enemy." — Sall. 

738 . — Obs. 3. Some verbs of asking and teaching are never followed 
by two accusatives, but by the ablative of the person, with a preposition ; such 
as, exigo, peto, quaero: pacem a te petimus, " we beg peace of you ; " and the 



212 CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENITIVE. [739-744 

following verbs of teaching, viz. : imbuo, instituo, insiruo, and some others, 
are followed by the ablative of the thing, sometimes with, and sometimes 
without, a preposition ; and sometimes they are otherwise construed. 

739.— Obs. 4. Many other transitive active verbs, frequently, besides 
the accusative of a person, take also an accusative of nihil, or of the 
neuter pronouns, hoc, id, quid, or of adjectives of quantity; -as, Fdbius ea 
me monuit, Cic. ; Nee te id consulo, Id. See 7 17. 

Accusative of Extent of Time and Space, see 950, 958. 
Accusative of Motion Towards, see 938, 943, 947. 
Accusative after Prepositions, see 981, 987. 
Accusative as Subject of an Infinitive, see 1135. 

ACCUSATIVE WITH IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

740. — Rule XIV. Decet, delectat, juvat, and 
oportet, govern the accusative of a person with 
the infinitive ; as, 

Delectat me studere, It delights me to study. 

Non decet te rixari, It does not become you to scold. 

74:1* — Obs. 1. These verbs are sometimes used personally / as, 

Parvtcm parva decent, " Small things become a small man." — Hor. Decet 
sometimes governs the dative ; as, Ita nobis decet. — Ter. 

742. — Obs. 2. Oportet, instead of the infinitive, elegantly takes the 
subjunctive with ut, " that," understood ; as, Sibi (ut) quisque considat 
oportet, " It is proper that each should take thought for himself." — Cic. 

743. — Obs. 3. Fallit, fugit, praeterit, latet, when used impersonally, 
are construed with the accusative and infinitive ; as, Fugit me ad te scribere y 
"It escaped me to write to you." — Cic. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENITIVE. 

74:4:. — The Genitive, as its name imports, with the 
meaning of the word, connects the idea of origin, and 
hence that of property or possession. It is used, in 
general, to limit the signification of another word 
with which it is joined, and receives various names de- 
scriptive of the mode in which the limitation is effected. 
Thus: 



745-752] THE GENITIVE GOVEENED BY NOUNS. 213 

745. — (1.) The subjective genitive (like the subject of a verb) tells 
the source from which the limited noun comes : jussu regis (like rex jubet)> 
" by order of the king." 

74:6. — (2.) The objective genitive (like the object of a verb) tells 
that towards which the limited noin is directed: amor Del (like amo 
Deum) " love of God." 

74:7* — (3.) The possessive genitive tells that to which the limited 
noun belongs; domus Caesaris, "Caesar's house." 

74:8* — (4.) The partitive genitive tells the whole of which the 
limited noun is a part : modius tritici, " a peck of wheat." 

74:9. — (5.) The descriptive genitive tells the character, quality, 
or quantity of the limited noun : vir maximi corporis, " a man of very great 
stature." 

750. — The Genitive is said to be governed by the word so limited, i. e., 
the word limited requires the word limiting it to be put in the Genitive 
case. 

The Genitive is governed by Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs ; and also is 
used to express circumstances of quantity or degree. 



THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY NOUNS. 

751.— Rule XV. One substantive governs 
j another in the genitive, when the latter substan- 
i tive limits the signification of the former ; as, 

Amor gloriae, The love of glory. (Objective*) 

Lex naturae, The law of nature. (Subjective.) 

752. — Explanation. — Under this rule, the two substantives must be 
of different signification 9 and the one used to limit the meaning 
of the other. Thus, in the first example, amor, alone, means " love," in 
general, but the term gloriae, joined with it, restricts its meaning here to a 
particular object, a glory," and so of other examples. 

N. B. — When a noun is limited by another of the same signification, it 
is put in the same case by Rule I., except in the rare instances mentioned 
in 631. 



214 observations. [753-759 



OBSERVATIONS. 

753. — Obs. 1. Sometimes the meaning of the limited and the limiting 
noun is such, that the genitive may be either subjective or objective ; 
thus, when the expression amor Del means the love which God has to us, 
Del is subjective ; but when it means the love which we have to God, Del 
is objective. In such cases, the sense in which the genitive is used must be 
determined by the context. 

754:. — Obs, 2. Hence it often happens that a noun governs two sub- 
stantives, one of which limits it stibjectively , and the other ob- 
jectively ; as, Agamemnonis belli gloria, " Agamemnon's glory in war." 
— Nep. Here, Agamemnonis limits gloria subjectively, and belli limits it 
objectively. So, HelvUiorum injfiriae popull Romanl, " The wrongs done 
by the Helvetians to the Roman people." — Caes. 

755. — Obs. 3. The governing noun is often omit t ed 9 but only, how- 
ever, when the expression itself readily suggests the noun to be supplied ; 
as, Ad Dianae, sc. aedem, " To Diana's (temple)." 

756. — Obs. 4. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun gov- 
erned by the noun, it is more common to use the possessive adjective pro- 
noun agreeing with it ; as, mens pater, rather than pater met. So, also, 
instead of the genitive of a noun, a possessive adjective is sometimes used; 
as, causa rlgia, for regis causa, "the king's cause;" herllis jilius, for 
films heri, "the master's son." 



757. — Rule XVI. A substantive added to 
another, to express a property or quality belong- 
ing to it, is put in the genitive or ablative (De~ 

scriptive) ; as, 

Vir summae prudentiae, or summd prudentia, A man of great wisdom. 
Puer probae indolis, or probd indole, A boy of a good disposition. 

758. — Explanation. — The limiting substantive, also, has always 
an adjective joined with it, as in the preceding examples, except in a 
few special expressions ; such as, homo nihill, " a man of no worth ; " and 
other words of indefinite, value : via tridul, " a journey of three days." To 
express " a man of talent," we must not say homo ingenil, but homo inge- 
niosus ; though we might say homo magnl ingenii. 

759. — Obs. 5. The descriptive genitive is said to express a 
more inherent and abiding quality than the descriptive ablative. But the 
distinction is not clearly marked. In some phrases the genitive only is 
used ; as, vir Iml subsellii, " a man of the lowest station." 



760-765] GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 215 

Adjectives taken as Substantives. 

760. — Rule XVII. An adjective in the 
neuter gender, without a substantive, governs 
| the genitive ; as, 

MuUum pecuniae, Much money. (Partitive.) 

Id negotii, That business. (Partitive.) 

701. — Explanation. — Under this Rule, the adjective, without a sub- 
stantive expressed, is regarded as a substantive, and so, capable of being 
I limited by the genitive, as under Rule XV. (75 1.) 

702. — Obs. 6. The adjectives thus used have a partitive character, 
, and are generally such as signify quantity : multum, plus, plurimum, tan- 
turn, quantum ; as, tantum spei, "so much (of) hope; " — the pronouns hoc, 
id. illud, istud, quod, quid, with its compounds ; as, id temporis, " that 
(of) time;" quid muliervi, " what kind of woman;" — also, summum, 
i ultimum, extremum, dimidium, medium, aliud, etc. To these may be added 
nihil, "nothing," which is always a substantive; and the adverbs satis, 
parum, abunde, affatim, and sometimes largiter, in a substantive sense ; 
as, satis eloquentiae, "enough (of) eloquence;" sapientiae parum, "little 

(of) wisdom." (Ill and 1008.) 
_ 
This Rule applies also to several neuter adjectives in the plural, used 
in a partitive sense ; as, angusta viarum, " the narrow parts of the road ; " 
I opCica locorum, " dark places," etc. 

Note. — Such adjectives, followed by a genitive, are always either in the 
; nominative or accusative ; and, when in the accusative, are not dependent 
on a preposition. 



70S. — Obs. 7. Quod and quicquid, followed by a genitive, include 
the idea of .universality ; as, quod agri, " what of land," i. e., " all the land ; " 
> quicquid clvium, " whatever of citizens," i. e., " all the citizens ; " quicquid 
I deorum, " all the gods." 

704=. — Obs. 8. Opus and usus, signifying "need," sometimes govern 
the genitive ; as, Argentl opus fuit, " There was need of money." — Liv. 
] Proozmii non semper usus est, " There is not always need of an introduction." 
— Quinct. In general, these words govern the ablative. (923.) 



GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

765. — Eule XVIII. Verbal adjectives, or 

such as imply an operation of mind, govern the 
genitive; as — 



216 observations. [766-769 

Avidus gloriae, Desirous of glory. (Objective.) 

Ignarus fraudis, Ignorant of fraud. (Objective.) 

Memor beneficiorum, Mindful of favors. (Objective*) 

7S6. — Explanation. — The genitive, in this construction, as in 751, 
is used to limit the application of the general term, or adjective, by which 
it is governed, and may be rendered by of, or, in respect of, prefixed ; thus, 
in the first example, avidus expresses the possession of desire generally ; 
the genitive gloriae limits it to a certain object, " glory ; " and so of the 
other examples. 



OBSERVATIONS.. 

767. — Obs. 1. Adjectives governing the genitive under this Rule, 

are: 

1st. Verbals in AS ; as, capax, edax, tenax, etc. ; as, capdx magnae 
urbis, " able to contain a large city." 

2d. Participles in NS and TUS; as, amans, appetens, cupiem, 
patiens, impatiens, sitiens, colens, fugiens, intelligent, metuens, tem- 
per ans ; as, amans patriae, "loving (fond of) his country ; " con- 
sidtus, doctus, expertus, inexpertus, insuetas, insolitus ; as, insuUus 
laboris, " unused to labor," etc. 

3d. Adjectives denoting various affections of the mind ; such as, 1. 
Desire and Disgust ; as, avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus, etc., 
with many other verbals in idus and dsus ; as, avidus laudis, " greedy 
of praise." 2. Knowledge and Ignorance ; as, callidus, 
certus, conscius, gndrus, perltus, prudens, etc. — ignarus, incertus, 
inscius, imprudens, imperitus, rudis ; as, perltus belli, " skilled in war," 
etc. 3. Memory or For getf Illness ; as, memor, immemor ; as, 
memor heneficil, u mindful of kindness," etc. 4. Care and Neg- 
ligence / as, anxius, curiums, sollicitus, prdvidus, diligens ; — in- 
curiosus, securus, negligens ; as, securus salulis, " careless of safety," 
etc. 5. Fear and Confidence; as, pavidus, timidus, trepidus; 
— impavidm, interritus ; as, pavidus maris, " fearful of the sea," 
etc. 6. Quilt and Innocence; as, noxius, reus, suspectus, 
comperius ; — innoxius, innocens, insons ; as, noxius conjurationis, 
" guilty of conspiracy," etc. 

768. — Obs. 2. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and parti- 
ciples, but usually with some difference of meaning ; as, patiens algoris, 
" capable of bearing cold ; " patiens algdrem, " actually bearing cold ; " 
amans virtutis, " loving virtue," — spoken of the disposition; amans virtutem, 
" loving virtue," — spoken of the act. So, also, doctus grammaticae, " skilled 
in grammar ; " doctus grammaticam, " one who has studied grammar." 

760. — Obs. 3. Many of these adjectives vary their construction; so 
that, instead of the genitive, they sometimes take after them — 



770-773] partitives. 217 

1st. An infinitive clause ; as, Certus ire, " determined to go." — Ovid. 

2d. An accusative with a preposition; as, ad fraudem calhdus, 
"cunning in fraud ; " potens in res bellicosas, " powerful in war," etc. 

3d. An ablative with a preposition ; as, anxim de fama, " anxious 
about reputation ; " super scelere suspectus, " suspected of crime," 
etc. 

4th. An ablative without a preposition; as, arte rudis, "rude in 
art." (889.) 

770. — Obs. 4. Some adjectives usually governing the dative, some- 
times govern the genitive ; such as, similis, dissimilis, etc. See 863. 



771. — Rule XIX. Partitives and words 
placed partitively, comparatives, superlatives, in- 
terrogatives, and some numerals, govern the geni- 
tive (Partitive) ; as, 

Aliquis philosophorum, Some one of the philosophers. 

Senior fratrum, The elder of the brothers. 

Doctissimus Romdnorum, The most learned of the Romans. 

Quis nostrum ? Which of us ? 

Una musarum, One of the muses. 

Octavus sapientium, The eighth of the wise men. 

772. — Explanation. — A partitive is a word which signifies a part 
of any number of persons or things, in contradistinction to the whole. A 
Word placed partitively is one which, though it does not signify a 
part, yet is sometimes used to distinguish a part from the whole ; as, 
expedlti militum, " the light armed (of the) soldiers." The partitive, when 
an adjective, takes the gender of the whole, and governs it in the genitive 
plural ; or, if a collective noun, in the genitive singular ; and in this case, 
the partitive takes the gender of the noun understood : as, doctissimus suae 
aetatis, "the most learned man of his age." 

773. — Obs. 5. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of 
two ; the superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two ; 
as, major frdlrum, " the older of two brothers : " maximus frcdrum, "the 
eldest of (three or more) brothers." So also, uter, alter, and neuter, gen- 
erally refer to two ; quis, alius, and nullus, to more than two ; as, uter nos- 
trum? "which of us (two)?" quis nostrum? "which of us (three or 
more) ? " Nostrum and vestrum are used after partitives, not nostrl 
and vestrl. 

10 



218 ADJECTIVES OF PLENTY. [774-779 

774. — Obs. 6. The partitive is sometimes understood ; as, Fles 
nobilium til quoque fontium (sc. units), " Thou shalt be one of the famous 
fountains." — Hon. 

775* — Obs. *?. Instead of the genitive after the partitives, the ablative 
is often found governed by de, e, ex, or in 5 or the accusative with inter 
or ante ; as, unus e Sloicis, " one of the Stoics ; " ante omnes pulcherrimus, 
11 fairest before (of) all ; M inter regis opulentissimus, " richest among kings." 



776.— Eule XX. — Adjectives of plenty or 
want govern the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Plenus irae, or ira, Full of anger (objective). 

Inops ralionis, or ratione, Void of reason (objective). 

Explanation. — As in Rule XV., the adjective here is a general term, but 
limited in its application by the genitive following it. For the ablative, see 
888. 

777* — Obs. 8. Among adjectives denoting plenty or want, a con- 
siderable variety of construction is found. 

a. Some govern the genitive only ; as, exsors, impos, impotens, 
irritus, liberalise etc. 

b. Some govern the ablative only ; as, beatus, mutilus, turgidus. 

c. Some govern the genitive more frequently ; as, compos, con- 
sors, egenus, exhaeres, expers, fertilis, indigus, parcus, pauper, prodigus, 
sterilis, prosper, insatiatus, insatiabilis. 

d. Some govern the ablative more frequently ; as, abundans, 

ahenus, cassus, extorris, firmus, foetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, jejunus, 
infirmus, liber, locuples, laetus, mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pollens, satiatus, 
tenuis, truncus, viduus. 

e. Some govern the genitive or ablative indifferently; as, cdp?.dsus, 
dives, feamdus, ferax, immunis, inanis, i?wps, largus, modicus, immodicus, 
mmms, opulentus, plenus, potens, purus, refertus, satur, vacuus, fiber. 

778.— Obs. 9. Many of these adjectives are sometimes limited by a 
preposition and its case ; as, Locus copiosus a frumento, " A place well 
stored with corn."— Cic. Ab omni re paratus, " Prepared with every 
thing."— Id. Parens in victu, " Frugal in life."— Plin. 

779.— Obs. 10. In such expressions as anxius animl, aeger animi, 
anxious, worn out, in mind, integer aevi, sound (in respect) of age, etc., 
which occur in the poets and some prose writers, it is probable that the 
so-called genitives are really locatives. (See 934.) 



780-782] THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 219 

THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

780.— Rule XXL Sum governs the genitive 
of a person or thing to which, its subject belongs 
as a possession, property, or duty ; as, 

Est regis. It belongs to the king (jwssessive). 

Hominis est err are, It belongs to a man to err (possessive). 



Explanation. — The genitive in this construction may be supposed to 
be governed by the adjective proprius, or the substantive officium, 
munus, res, opus, etc., understood. (When it is expressed, the genitive is 
governed by it according to Rule XV., 751.) The verb is in the third per- 
son, — often has an infinitive or clause for its nominative, and may be ren- 
dered in any way by which the sense is expressed ; such as, it belongs to ; — 
it is the property — the part — the duty — the peculiarity — the character of, etc. 
The following are examples : 

Insipicntis est dicer e, non putdram, It is the part of a fool to say, " I did 

not think." 
Mxlitum est sua duel parere, It is the duty of soldiers to obey 

their leader. 
Laudare se va.nl est, It is the mark of a vain man to praise 

himself. 



f81* — Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive, in the predicate of a sentence, 
is governed by the preceding word repeated after the verb ; as, Hie liber est 
(liber) fratris, "This book "is the boy's (book)." Sometimes the genitive 
depends on some general word understood, but easily supplied in the mind. 
The same construction is sometimes used after fio, and some other verbs ; 
as, Asia Romanorum facta est, sc. provincia, "Asia became (a possession 
or province) of the Romans." 



yS2. — Obs. 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the 
nominative neuter of the possessive is commonly used, agreeing 
with officium, munus, etc, understood; as ? tnnm est, "it is your duty," in- 
stead of tul ; meum est, " it is my part," instead of rnei. So, also, instead 
of a lenitive of a noun, an adjective derived from it may be used ; as, hu- 
manwn est, " it belongs to man, it is human; " regium est, " it is the part 
of a king." But with adjectives with "consonant stems (193) the genitive is 
regularly used : sapientis est (not sapiens est), " it is (a mark) of a wise 
man." 



220 VERBS OF PITY AND MEMORY, [783-788 

783.— Rule XXII. Misereor, miseresco, and 
satago, govern the genitive ; as, 

Miserere civium tuorum, Pity your countrymen (objective). 
Satagit rerum, He is busy with affairs (partitive), 

784:* — Explanation. — The genitive, after verbs of "pity," is governed 
directly by the verb, and expresses, as in Greek, the cause or object of the 
feeling which the verb denotes. See Gr. Gram., § 144, Rule XIV. The 
genitive after satago (lit. " do enough "), is governed partitively by sat 
(111.) 

785, — Obs. 3. Many other verbs denoting some affection of the mind 
are sometimes followed by a genitive, denoting that with regard to which 
or on account of which, the affection exists. These are ango, decipior, dis- 
crucior, fastidio, mlror, pendeo, vereor, etc. Thus, Absurde facis qui angas 
U animl, " You act absurdly in distressing yourself in mind." — Plaut. 
They follow the analogy of corresponding adjectives. (V79.) But they have 
commonly a different construction. (889.) 

• 

780, — Obs. 4. Several verbs, especially among the poets, are found 
with the genitive, in imitation of the Greek construction (Gr. Gram., § 144, 
Rules XVI. and XVII.). These are abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, regno, 
potior ; also, adipiscor, frustror, laudo, libero, levo, participo, prohibeo ; 
thus, Abstmeto irarum, " Abstain from anger." — Hon. Desine quereldrum, 
" Cease from complaints." — Id. Regnavit populorum, " He reigned over 
tribes." — Id. 

Note. — All these verbs, however, in Obs. 3 and 4, have, for the most 
part, a different construction, being followed sometimes, as active transitive 
verbs, by the accusative, and more frequently by the accusative or ablative 
with a preposition. 

787* — Obs. 5. Some verbs of plenty and want take the genitive, like 
adjectives 'Wb) virtus exercitationis indiget, " virtue needs exercise." 



788.— Rule XXIII. Verbs of memory. — He- 

cor dor, 7nemim J reminiscor, and obliviscor, may 
govern the genitive ; as, 

Reminiscor iricommodl, I remember the defeat. 

Oblwiscor injuriae, I forget an injury. 



789-794] accusative and genitive. 221 

7 89. — Note. — Memini and recordor, however, usually, and reminiscor 
and obllviscor sometimes, govern the accusative, as transitive verbs. If 
the genitive is used, it is objective, 

790. — Obs. 4. These verbs are often construed with an infinitive 

or some part of a sentence, instead of the genitive or accusative ; as, Memini 
videre virginem, " I remember seeing the girl." — Ter. 

791, — Obs. 5. Recordor and memini, signifying "to remember," are 
sometimes followed by an ablative with de. El venit in mentem, " It oc- 
curs to him," being equivalent to recordatur, sometimes has a genitive after 
it ; as, El venit in mentem potestutis tuae, " Your power occurs to him." But 
the nominative is also used. 



VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 

GENITIVE. 

792. — Many transitive verbs, with the accusative of the direct object, 
govern also another word, with which the notion of the action is involved, 
in the genitive, dative, accusative, or ablative, as the nature of that reference 
may require. 

79S. — Rule XXIV. Crime, punishment, 
warning. — Verbs of accusing, condemning, ac- 
quitting, and admonishing, govern the accusative 
of a person, with the genitive of a thing ; as, 

Arguit me furti, He accuses me of theft {objective). 

Meipsum inertiae condemno, I condemn myself of laziness. 

Ilium homicldil absolvunt, They acquit him of manslaughter. 

Monet me officii, He admonishes me of my duty. 

794:. — To this rule belong verbs of — 

1. Accusing ; as, accuso, appello, arcesso, anquiro, arguo, coarguo, 
inerepo, incuso, insimulo, posiulo. 

2. Condemning ; as, damno, condemno, convinco, deprehendo, 
judico. 

3. Acquitting ; as, absolvo, llbero, purgo. 

4. Admonishing / as, moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio. 



222 VERBS OF VALUING. [795-801 

70S. — 06s. 1. With many of these verbs, instead of the genitive of 
the crime or punishment, the ablative is used with, or without, a prepo- 
sition ; as, Accusdre de negligenlid, Cic. ; Liberdre culpa, Id. The ablatives 
crvmine and nomine are often inserted before the genitive ; as, Ar cesser e 
aliquem crimine ambitus, " To charge one with bribery." — Liv. Sometimes 
the punishment is put in the accusative after ad or in ; as, Damndre ad 
bestids, " To condemn to the wild beasts ; " often in the ablative, Quindecim 
millibus damndtur, " He is condemned to pay fifteen thousand." Midto has 
always the ablative; as, Multdre pecunid, " To fine a sum of money." 

70S. — Obs. 2. Accuso, incuso, insimido, together with verbs of ad- 
monishing, instead of the genitive, are sometimes followed by the accu- 
sative, especially of the neuter pronouns hoc, id, illud, quod, etc., and 
their plurals ; as, Si id me ndn accusds, '* If you do not accuse me of that." 
— Plaut. Eos hoc moneo, " I give them this warning." — Cic. 

707 • — Obs. 3. Many verbs signifying to accuse, and among them some 
of the verbs enumerated under this rule, do not govern the genitive of the 
crime, but, as transitive active verbs, govern it in the accusative by Rule 
VIII. ; as, ejus avdritiam perfidiamque accusdrat, " he had accused his 
avarice and treachery." 

798. — Obs. 4. Verbs of admonishing, instead of the genitive, are 
sometimes followed by the ablative with a preposition ; as, orb ut Te- 
rentiam monedtis de tcstamento, " I beg you to remind Terentia cf the will ; " 
sometimes by an infinitive or clause ; as, Monet succurrere Lauso Turnum, 
" She advises Turnus to aid Lausus." — Virg. Monet ut suspicioues vltet, 
" He warns him to avoid suspicions." 

799. — Rule XXV. Verbs of valuing, with 
their own case, and sometimes without a ease, gov- 
ern such genitives of indefinite degree as magni ^ 
pa?*vi) niJiill / as, 

JEstimo te magni, I value you much. {Descriptive.) 

Mihi stetit pluris, It cost me more. 
Estparvi, It is of little value. 

800. — Explanation, — By its own case is meant the case which the 
verb usually governs. Verbs without case, as sum, flo, existo, etc., have 
the genitive only. The adjectives magni, parvl, etc., may agree with pretii, 
or the like, understood, and the construction comes under Rule XVI. The 
genitive is only used when the expression of value is indefinite. A 
definite price is put in the ablative. (884.) 

801.— Verbs of valuing are such as aestimo, duco,facio, habeo,pendo, 
taxo, sum, flo, consto, etc. 



802-809] IMPERSOSTALS OF INTEREST. 223 

802.— Among the genitives of degree governed "by such verbs, are the 
adjectives tanti, quantl, pluris, mindris, magnl, plurimx, minimi, parvi, 
etc., and the substantives fioccl, nauci, pill, hi jus, etc., which last all imply 
something valueless: non hujus te facto, " I don't care that for you." 

803. — Obs. 5. The ablatives magna, parvo, plurimo, minimd, are 
sometimes found, particularly with aestimo ; as, areas magnd aesiimant, 
" They set a high price upon the lots." — Cic. 

804:. — Obs. 6. JEqui and bom are put in the genitive after facto and 
consulo ; as, JEqul boivique facio, "I take this in good part." 

80S. — Eule XXVI Impersonate of Feel- 
ing. — These five, ^Miseret, poenitet, padet, taedet, 
and piget, govern the accusative of the person 
who feels, with the genitive of the object exciting 
the feeling ; as, 

Miser et me tul, I pity you. (Objective.) 

Paenitet me peccdii, I repent of my sin. 

Taedet me vifae, I am weary of life. 

Pudet me culpae, I am ashamed of my fault. 

800* — Explanation. — These examples may be rendered literally thus : 
" It grieves me (on account) of you ; " — " It repents me of my sin ; "■ — " It 
wearies me of life ; " — " It shames me of my fault." 

807. — Obs. 1. The infinitive mood or a sentence may supply 
the place of the genitive ; as, poenitet me peccasse, or quod peccdverim, *' I 
repent that I have sinned ; " non poenitet me quantum profecerim, " I do 
not repent of the advance I have made." 

808. — Obs. 8. The preterites of these verbs, in the passive form, 
govern the same cases as the active ; as, Miseritum est me tudrum for- 
tundrum, li l pitied your fortunes." — Ter. Miserescit and miseretur are 
sometimes used impersonally ; as, Miserescit me tui, " I pity you." — Ter. 
Miseredtur te frdtrum, " You should pity your brothers." — Cic. 



809. — Rule XXVII. Impersonate of Inter- 
est. — -Hefert and Interest govern the genitive ; as, 

Refert patris, It concerns my father. (JPossessive.) 

Interest omnium, It is the interest of all. 



224 CONSTRUCTION OF ) DATIVE. [810-815 

But, instead of the genitives mei, tu\ sui, etc., the pos- 
sessives med, tud> sua. nostra, vestrd, are used ; as, 
JVon mea refert, It does not concern me. 

810. — Epxplanation. — It is uncertain how the forms mea, etc., and 
the re in refert arose. There is reason to believe that they are mutilated 
forms of the datives meae, etc., and rel. (See Donaldson, Varron., pp. 310, 
317.) So that non mea refert would be for non meae rel (quidquam) fert, 
" It does not bring (any thing) for my interest." 

811. — Obs. 9. The matter of interest is expressed by an infini- 
tive, a neuter pronoun, or a subordinate sentence ; as, Vestra interest, ne 
imperatorem pessiml faciani, "It is of importance to you that the worst 
men should not choose the Emperor." 

812.— Obs. 10. The degree of interest is expressed by an adverb 
or an adverbial expression, or by a genitive of indefinite value (799); as, 
Mogul tud refert, hie quid velit, « It is of great importance to you, what 
this man means." 

818.— Obs. 11. The end for tvhich the matter is important is 
expressed by ad with accusative ; as, Magni ad honorem nostrum interest, 
quam prlmum ad urbem me venire, "It is of great importance for my 
honor, that I should come as soon as possible to the city." 

Genitive of Place. The so-called genitive of place is treated of 
in 932, 934. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

814:.— -The Dative Case is believed to have originally implied 
nearness to, or proximity. But this sense of the case is only found dis- 
tinctly in one construction (934). Since, however, those things which are 
near to us affect us, and are of interest to us, the Dative came to be 
used to express this more general idea, which is, in English, denoted com- 
monly by the prepositions to or for, and these are consequently called the 
signs of the Dative. 

815.— Note.— To and for are not always signs of the dative. When 
to implies motion, or direction towards, it is a sign of the accusative case, 
and generally requires a preposition {ad, in, etc.) ; as, Romam venit, " He 
came to Rome" (938) ; Ad oppidum contendit, " He hastens to the town " 
(947). So, again, for 9 when it means in behalf of, is expressed by pro, 
with the ablative: Decorum est pro potria mori, "Comely is it to die for 
one's country," 



816-820] DATIVE OF INTEREST. 225 

816.— The person or thing interested in an action is gen- 
erally called in Grammar the remote object. Thus, in the sentence, 
Aesopo quidam lapidem impegerat, " A man had cast a stone at Aesop," 
lapidem is called the direct object, as being essentially involved in the 
action, and Aesopo is called the remote object, as being the person to 
whom the action was of importance or interest. 

817. — The Dative is governed by verbs, adjectives, or by substantives 
or adverbs derived from them ; and it is convenient to state the use of the 
case under these heads. But it may nearly always be seen that the mean- 
ing given above is the fundamental one, and that the Dative is the case 
of interest ; and as interest may be either agreeable or the reverse, 
the common expression, Dative of advantage or disadvantage 
(Datlvus commodi aut incommodi), will be found to be generally applicable. 



THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

818.— Rule XXVIII. All verbs govern tlie 
dative of the object or end, to which the action 
or state expressed by them is directed as matter 
of interest ; as, 

Finis venit impend, An end has come to the empire. 

Animus redit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy. 

Tibi seris, tibi metis. You sow for yourself, you reap for yourself. 

819.— Explanation.— -This rule may be considered as general, apply- 
ing to all cases in which a verb is followed by a dative. When the verb 
is transitive active, it governs also its immediate object in the accusative 
(712). If intransitive, it will be followed by a dative only. 

This rule, being applicable to all cases in which a dative follows a verb, 
is too general to be useful, as it could not be applied correctly without much 
discrimination. It will, therefore, be of more advantage, when it can be 
done, to apply the special rules comprehended under it as follows : 

SPECIAL RULES. 
820. — Rule XXIX. Sum, and its compounds 

(except possum), govern the dative ; as, 

Praefuit exercitui, He commanded the army. 

Debemus omnibus prodesse, We ought to do good to all. 

10* 



226 compound verbs. [821-827 

821. — Rule XXX. The verb Sum, signifying 
to he y or to belong to, governs the dative of the 
possessor; as, 

Est mihi liber, A book is to me, ?'. e., I have a book. 

Sunt mihi Hbri, Books are to me, i. e., I have books. 

Scio libros esse mihi, I know that books are to me, £. e. — that I have, etc. 

822. — Explanation. — In this construction, the dative expresses the 
person or thing, to or for which the subject spoken of is, or exists. The 
verb will always be in the third person singular or plural, in any tense, or 
in the infinitive. 

823. — Obs. 1. An adjective, or participle, denoting willingness or 
unwillingness, agreeing with the dative after est, is sometimes put for a 
verb of like signification, having the word in the dative for its subject ; 
thus, Mihi volenti est — volo, " It is to me wishing = I wish ; " Tibi invito 
fuit = noluistl, " It was to you unwilling = you were unwilling," etc. So, 
Quibus bellum volentibus erat, " Who wished for war," Tac, Agr., 18 ; — 
Neque plebl militia volenti esse putabatur, " It was thought that the com- 
mon people did not wish for war," or, " That war would not be agreeable 
to the common people." — This is a Greek construction, for which see Greek 
Grammar, § 148, Obs. 3. 

824. — Rule XXXI. Verbs compounded of 
satis, "bene, and male, govern the dative ; as, 

Legibus satisfecit, He satisfied the laws. 

Benefacere reipublicae, To benefit the state. 

825. — Obs. 2. These compounds are often written separately, and the 
dative is governed by the combined force of the two words. 



826. — Rule XXXII. Many verbs compounded 
with these ten prepositions, ad, ante, con, — in, 
inter, ob, — post, prae, sub, and super, govern the 

dative; as, 

Annue coeptis, Favor our undertakings. 

827. — Explanation — The dative follows these verbs because it is the 
case expressing proximity to (814); and the prepositions all express near- 



828-831] VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. 227 

ness to in some relation. Thus, Cul canis cognomen adhaeret, "To whom 
the name of 'dog* sticks fast/' — Hor. So, Homerd Virgilium comparo y 
lit.y " I put Virgil along side of Homer, I compare V. with H." 

828, — Verbs governing the dative under this Rule are such as the 
following, viz. : 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adndto, adequito, adhaereo, 
adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allaboro, annuo, appareo, 
applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, asplro, asseniior, assideo, assisto, assuesco, 
assurgo. 

2. Antecello, anteeo, antesto, anteverto. 

3. CoUudOy concino, consono, convivo. 

4. Incumboy indormio, indubito, inhio, ingemisco, inhaereo, insideo, insi- 
deor, insto, insisto, insudo, insulto, invigilo, illacrymo y Hludo, immmeo, im- 
morior, immoror, impendeo. 

5. Intervenio, intercedo, intercido, interjaceo. 

6. ObrepOy obluctor, obtrecto, obstrepo, obmurmurOy occumbo, ocourro, 
occursOy obstOy obsisto, obvenio. 

7. PostferOy posthabeOy postponOy postscribOy along with an accusative. 

8. PraecedOy praecurrOy praeeo y praesideo y praeluceOy praeniteOy praes(o y 
praeverto. 

9. Succedo, succwnbOy mfficiOy suffragory subcrescOy suboleOy subjaceOy 
subrepo. 

10. SuperveniOy supercurroy superslo. But most verbs compounded 
with super govern the accusative. 

829* — Obs. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, ddy ex y circum, and 
contra ; also, compounds of di and disy meaning generally " to differ," are 
sometimes followed by the dative ; as, Sibi dissentity " He dissents from 
himself." 

830. — Obs. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of 
the dative, take the case of the preposition, which is sometimes 
repeated. Some intransitive verbs so compounded, either take the dative, 
or, acquiring a transitive signification by the force of the preposition, gov- 
ern the accusative by 718, 719 ; as, HelvUii reliquds Gallos virtute 
praecedunty " The Helvetii surpass the other Gauls in bravery." 



831. — Kule XXXIII. Verbs govern the dative 
wliicli signify to profit or hurt; — to favor or 
assist, and the contrary ; — to command and 



228 VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. [832-834 

obey, to serve and resist ; — to threaten and to be 
angry ; to trust ; as, 

Ne alterl noceas. You should not hurt another. 

Ego tibi favebo, I will favor you. 

Pareto r'egi, You must obey the king. 

Gloriae servit, He is a slave to glory. 

Puero irascitur, He is angry with the boy. 

Mihi crede, Trust me. 

832* — Explanation. — It is clear that with verbs of these meanings 
the dative expresses the person or thing interested in the good or harm 
done or intended. 

833. — Obs. 5. The verbs under this Rule are such as the following: 

1st. To profit or hurt ; as, 

Proficio, prosum,placeo, commodo, prospicio, caveo, metuo, timeo, consult). 
Likewise, noceo, officio, incommodo, displiceo, etc. 

2d. To favor or assist, and the contrary ; as, 

Faveo, grtilidor, gratificor, grator, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, adulor, 
plaudo, blandior, lenocinor, palpor, assentor, auxilior, subvenio, succurro, 
patrocinor, medeor, medicor, opitulor, derogo, detraho, invideo, aemulor. 

3d. To command and obey, to serve and resist ; as, 

Impero, praecipio, mando ; moderor, for modum adhibeo ; pareo, 
ausadto, obedio, obsequor, obtempero, morem gero, morigeror, obsecundo ; 
famidor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor ; repugno, obsto y reluctor, renilor. 
resisto, refragor, adversor. 

4th. To threaten and to be angry ; as, 
Minor, comminor, irascor, succenseo. 

5th. To trust ; as, 

Fido, confldo, credo, diffido. 

Note.—Fldo sometimes and confldo often have the ablative: alio duce 
confldere, " to trust in another leader." 

To these, add mlbo, "to veil oneself for, to marry ('used of the bride); 
excello, haereo, supphco, cedo, despero, operor, praesfolor, praevaricor ; re- 
cipio "to promise;" renuncio ; respondeo, "to answer," or "satisfy" 
suadeo, persuadeo, " to persuade ; " tempero, sludeo ; vaco, "to be at leisure 
tor. 

« * ^^r, ^ 6 ; JuV0 ' " t0 assist ; " 3 uheo ' " t0 bid ; " re 9° and guberno y 
to rule;" laedo "to hurt;" offendo, "to offend;" govern the accusative : 
Milium nds apud Plancum juvare potes, "You can help me much with 
Plancus." 



835-840] ETHICAL DATIVE. 229 

835. — Obs. 7. A few of these verbs, besides those which are regularly 
transitive, and govern the accusative along with the dative, take an accu- 
sative instead of the dative : Mare et terras temper at, " He governs earth 
and sea; " Duritiam legum moderdtus est, " He moderated the severity of 
the laws." Others, sometimes, have a preposition with the accusative or 
ablative. Thus, congruo, "to agree," is used with the prepositions ad, in, 
inter, and cum, with slightly different meanings. 

836. — Obs. 8. Some verbs have different meanings, according 
as they govern the accusative or dative. Thus : 

Haec ndbls convenmnt, These things agree with us. 

Caesarem convenit, He had an interview with Caesar. 

Timeo te, I fear you. 

Timeo tibi, I am apprehensive for you. 

Consulo te, I consult you. 

Consulo tibi, I consult for your interests. 

Caveo te, or a te y I am on my guard against you. 

Caveo tibi, I am concerned for your safety. 

837. — Obs. 9. Very rarely in the poets the dative is used to express the 
Object of motion : It clamor coelo, " The shout goes to the sky,'- Virg., 
which seems to be used in the sense of ad coelum. Most of the cases, how- 
ever, quoted to show that this can be so, may be explained on other and 
more regular principles ; generally as being datives of interest. 



838. — Rule XXXIV. Ethical Dative.— -The 
datives of personal pronouns are often used to 
signify that the matter spoken of is regarded with 
interest (fjOog) by some one ; as, 

Quid mihi Celsus agit ? How does my friend Celsus do ? 

Tongilium mihi eduxit, He obliged me by taking Tongilius with 

him (ironical). 

£#.9. — Explanation, — The Ethical Dative is only a more delicate 
shade of the dative of interest. In the latter, the dative denotes that 
a person is interested in an action done with reference to him ; the Ethical 
Dative, on the contrary, denotes an interest in an action which has no 
direct or intentional reference to the person interested. 

840. — Exile XXXV. Dative tvith Imper- 
sonate. — The impersonal verbs licet, " it is law- 



23(K DATIVE OF THE AGENT. [841-84:6 

ful," libet, "it is pleasing," expedit, "it is expe- 
dient," govern the dative ; as, 

Licet neminl patrem verberare, It is not lawful for any one to smite 

his father. 
El libebit, quod non licet (el), It will please him to do that which is 

unlawful for him. 

841. — Obs. 1. Those intransitive verbs which govern a dative, if used 
in the passive impersonally (453), govern the dative still. Thus, favet mihi, 
" he favors me," is, in the passive, mild favUur ab eo. See 457. 

842.— Obs. 2. Some verbs are used both personally and impersonally; 
as, doleo, "I grieve;" dolet mihi, "it grieves me," i. e., "I grieve.'^ So, 
also, verbs commonly used impersonally sometimes have a subject in the 
nominative, and are, of course, used personally. This is the case especially 
with such nominatives as these : id, hoc, Mud, quid, quod, nihil, etc. ; as, 
Nonne haec tepudent? " Are you not ashamed of these things ?" 

843. — Obs. 3. An infinitive mood or part of a sentence is commonly 
joined to an impersonal verb, which is to be regarded as its subject ; as, 
delected me studere, " it delights me to study," i. e., " to study delights me." 



844. — Rule XXXVI. Dative of the Agent. — 

The dative is often used with the perfect tenses 
of passive verbs, to denote the agent, instead of 
the ablative with a or ab / as, 

Mihi consilium captumjamdiu est, A plan has been long formed by me. 



845.— Explanation. — This use of the dative is still only an exten- 
sion of the notion of interest, the apparent agent being the possessor or 
person interested. Thus, in the above example : " I have a plan 
long formed." So, Qui non sunt audltae Demosthenis vigiliae, " Who is 
there to whom the night-watchings of Demosthenes are a thing unheard of." | 

846. — Obs. The dative of the agent is used also with imperfect 
tenses by the poets, rarely by prose writers : neque cernitur ulli, " nor is 
seen by (is visible to) any." — Virg. Honesta bonis viris, non occulta quae- 
runtur, " Honorable things, not secret ones, are sought by good men (for 
themselves)." — Cic. 



847-851] VEEBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES. 231 

847.— Eule XXXVII The dative is used 
after the gertindive with, esse to denote the 
agent, or the person on whom an obligation 
rests (see 1305, 1306) ; as, 

Caesarl uno tempore omnia erant Caesar had to do all things at one 

agenda, time. 

Omnibus calcanda est via leti, The path of death is to be trodden 

by all. 

VERBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES. 

848.— Eule XXXVIII. Dative of end.— 

Some verbs, along with the dative of interest (re- 
mote object), govern also the dative of the end, or 
design; as, 

., „ . . r . i ...~ ( It is to me a pleasure, L e., 

1. Est mihi voluptah, -j Jt ^ w Wm ^ ft ^^ ' to ffie 

2. Hoc niisit mihi muneri, This he sent as a present to me. 

a - tJ ■, __..,. ( It is reckoned to you for an honor, i. e.. 

3. Daeitur honori Hbi, -j , t fe vectoaed an -, lonor to you- 

„ 7 . j. . lC > i To whom was it for an advantage ? ?. e„ 

4. Cm bono fait? j For whose advantage was it ? 

84:9. — Explanation — In these examples, it is manifest that the words 
I voluptati, honori, muneri, and bono, each express the end or design for 
'• which the thing spoken of, or referred to, is, is reckoned, is sent, to the 
j object expressed by the other datives, mihi and tibi, cui. See also 851. 

The verb sum, with the dative of the end, may be variously rendered, 
\ according to the sense, by such words as, bri?igs, affords, serves, etc. For, 
j the sign of the dative, is often omitted, especially after sum. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

850. — Obs. 1. Verbs governing two datives under this Rule, are 
chiefly, swn, fxo, habeo, do, verto, relbxquo, tribao, dfico, and a few others. 

851. — Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the end, a complement is 

often used in agreement with the subject ; as, Amor est exiiium pecorl, for 
exitio, "Love is a ruin to cattle." In this example, exitium is the nomi- 
native after est, by Rule VI., 66G. 



232 ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. [852-857 

85 2 • — Obs. 3. Of course, transitive verbs may have their object in the 
accusative as well as these two datives, as in the second example. 

853. — Obs. 4. The dative of interest (commonly a person) is often to 
be supplied ; as, est exemplo, indicia, praesidio, Usui, etc., scil. mihi, alicui, 
hominibus, or some such word. So, ponere, opponere, pignorl, scil. alicui, 
" to pledge ; " canere receptui, scil. suis mllitibus, " to sound a retreat ; " 
habere curae, quaestui, odio, voluptatl, studio, etc., scil. sibi. 

854* — Obs. 5. The expression dicto audiens, " obedient to word," is 
sometimes accompanied with a dative of the person obeyed : Caesarl dicto 
audiens est, " He is obedient to Caesar." 



VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 

DATIVE. 

855.— Rule XXXIX. Verbs of comparing, 
giving, declaring, and taking away, govern the 
accusative and dative ; as, 

Comparo Virgilium Homer I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Suum culque tribuito, Give every man his own. 

Narras fabulam surdo, You tell a story to a deaf man. 

Eripuit me mortl, He rescued me from death. 

856. — Explanation. — This is a rule of very extensive application. 
When, together with the thing done (expressed by the transitive active verb 
and its accusative), we express also the remote object to which it is done, 
that object will be put in the dative ; thus, in the above examples, the verb 
and the accusative following it, express the whole of that which is repre- 
sented as done to, or with reference to, the object expressed in the dative. 
Narr as fabulam expresses all here said to be done (surdo) to the deaf man, 
" you tell a story to him ; " and so eripuit me, together, express what is 
here done (mortl) to death, " he rescued me from it ; " and so of other ex- 
amples. See this more fully illustrated, Gr. Gram., § 153, Obs. 3. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

857. — Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, and some others, 
instead of the dative, often take a preposition and its case ; as, Corn- 
par are ilnam rem cum alia, — ad aliam, — res inter se : eripuit me mortl, — 
morte, — a, or ex morte, etc. 



858-862] THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 233 

85 8. — Obs, 2. Instead of the accusative, these verbs have frequently 
an infinitive mood or a part of a sentence ; as, Da mihi fallere,etc, " Grant 
me to escape notice." — Hon. ; Perfacile facta esse illis probat, " He proves to 
them that it is perfectly easy to do." — Caes. This construction is espe- 
cially common with such verbs as aio, dlco, inquam, persuddeo, respondeo, 
etc., when the thing said, replied, etc., though a sentence or a paragraph, is 
to be regarded as the accusative, and the word denoting the person or per- 
sons to whom said, is put in the dative. 

850, — Obs. 3. Several verbs governing the accusative and dative are 
often construed differently; as, circumdare rnoenia oppido, or oppidum 
moenibus, "to surround a city with walls; " intercludere commedium alicui, 
or aliquem commeatu, "to intercept one's provisions;" induere, exuere ves~ 
tern sibi, or se veste. So the following, Universes frumento donavit, "He 
presented all with corn," Nep. ; and Praedam militibus ddnat, " He gives 
the prey to the soldiers," Caes. ; Aspergere sale carnes, or aspergere salem 
carnibus, " To sprinkle salt on the flesh." — Plin. 



THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

860. — Rule XL. Adjectives signifying profit 
or disprofit, likeness or unlilceness, govern the 
dative; as, 

Utilis bello, Useful for war. 

Similis patri, Like his father. 

86 1. — Explanation. — The dative under this Rule is used to limit the 

j meaning of the adjective to a particular object or end, to which the quality 

! expressed by it is directed. Thus, in the first example, utilis means " use- 

i ful" in a general sense ; bello limits the usefulness intended to a particular 

object, " war." The dative, thus used, is rendered by its ordinary signs to 

or for, but sometimes by other prepositions, or without a preposition, as in 

the last example. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

802. — Obs. 1. To this rule belong adjectives signifying: 

1st. Profit, or disprofit ; as, benignus, bonus, commodus, felix ; 
— damnosus, dims, exitiosiis, funestus, etc. 

2d. Pleasure, or pain; as, acceptus, dulds, grains, jucundus, 
laetus, suavis ; — acerbus, amarus, ingratus, molestus, etc. 

3d. Friendship, or hatred; as, aeqims, amicus, blandus, carus, 
dedilus, fldus ; — adversus, asper, crudelis, infeslus, etc. 



234 observations. [863-868 

4th. Perspicuity, or obscurity ; as, apertus, certus, compertus, 
conspicuus, notus ; — ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, obscurus, etc. 

5th. Propinquity ; as, finitimus, propior, proximus, propi?iquus, 

socius, vicinus, afflnis, etc. 

6th. Fitness, or unfitness ; as, aptus, appositus, habilis, idoneus, 
opportunus; — ineptus, inhabilis, importunus, etc. 

7th. Ease, or difficulty ; as, facilis, levis, obvius, pervius ; — 
difficilis, arduus gravis. Also those denoting propensity or readi- 
ness ; as, promts, proclivis, prope?isus, etc. 

8th. Equality, or inequality; likeness, or unlikeness; as, 
aequdlis, aequaevus, par, compar ; — inaequdlis, impar, dispar, 
discors ; — similis, aemulus ; — dissimilis, alienus, etc. 

9th. Several adjectives compounded with CON ; as, cogndtus, 
congruus, conso?ius, conveniens, continent, etc. 

10th. Verbal adjectives in BILIS ; as, amdbilis, terribilis, opta- 
bilis, and the like. 

863, — Obs. 2. — Exc. The following adjectives have sometimes the 
dative after them, and sometimes the genitive ; viz. : affinis, similis, 
communis, par, proprius, finitimus,fldus, conterminus, super stes, conscius, 
aequdlis, contrdrius, and adversus. When the genitive is used, they are 
regarded as nouns. Thus, similis tibi, " like (to) you ; " similis tui, " a 
likeness of you." It is said that with similis, dissimilis, the genitive is used 
of resemblance in character. 

804:. — Consdus and some other adjectives govern the dative accord- 
ing to this rule, and, at the same time, a genitive by Rule XVIII. ; as, Mens 
sibi conscia recti, " A mind conscious to itself of rectitude." — Virg. 

80S* — Obs. 3. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing, 
take after them the accusative with ad, rather than the dative ; as, pro- 
clivis, pronus, propensus, velox, celer, tardus, piger, etc. ; thus, ad vitium pro- 
clivis, " prone to vice." — Ovid. 

80S, — Obs. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and the con- 
trary, often take the accusative with ad, as well as the dative ; as, 
multds ad res peruliles (nobis) sunt Xenophontis libri, " Xenophon's writings 
are very useful to us for many purposes." 

867* — Obs. 5. Prop'wr and proximus take after them sometimes the 
genitive, sometimes the dative, or the accusative following the 
construction of the preposition prope ; as, propior callginis dcr ; propius 
verd ; proximus Pompeium. 

8680 — Obs. 6. Some adjectives that govern the dative sometimes, in- 
stead of the dative, have an ablative with a preposition expressed or 
understood ; as, discors secum ; alienum nostra amiciiid. 



869-872] DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 235 

869* — Obs. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in 
the poets ; as, Invitum qui servat, idem facit occidenti, u He who preserves 
a man against his will, does the same as one who kills him. ,, In prose, 
idem is followed commonly by qui, ac, atque, ut. 



THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES 
AND ADVERBS. 

870.— Rule XLI. Some Substantives and 
Adverbs, derived from verbs or adjectives, gov- 
ern a dative in the same sense as those verbs or 
adjectives. 

Obtemperatio legibus, Obedience to the laws. 

Sibi ipsi responsio, A reply to oneself. 

Congruenter naturae vivere, To live in harmony with nature. 

87 !• — Obs, In such ^expressions as voluptusest hoslis virtTdibus (pleas- 
ure is a foe to manly qualities), amor est exitium peeorl (love is ruin to 
cattle), the dative is not governed by the noun, but is connected directly 
with the verb by Rule XXIX. So in el venit in mentem (it came into his 
mind), cui corpus porrigitur (whose body is extended), the datives ci and 
cui are simple datives of interest* Compare the remarks in 856. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE. 

872* — The ablative case is used in senses very different from 
each other. Thus, in the sentences " he lived in a cave," " he came out 
of a cave," the word cave would in Latin be in both in the ablative case. 
In the latter, it would be a true ablative (or removal-c&se), expressing sepa- 
ration from ; but in the former its meaning is much more like that of the 
dative, if the dative was (814) correctly explained as originally implying 
nearness to. The best authorities, therefore, believe that the ablative, as 
we find it, is the result of a confusion between the dative and a true abla- 
tive, ending in d, which existed in the oldest period of the language. See 
Donaldson, Varron., pp. 274, 275, 284. 

The ablative case has two leading uses ; it denotes — 

I. Various conditions of an action, as manner, cause, instrument, 
time, place, and attendant circumstances. 

II. Separation from* 



236 THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, ETC. [873-878 

THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNER, Etc. 

873. — Rule XLII. The cause, manner, 
means, and instrument, are put in the abla- 
tive; as, 

Palleo metu, I am pale for fear. 

Fecit sub" more, He did it after his own way. 

Auro ostroque decori, Decked with gold and purple. 

JScriho calamo, I write with a pen. 

874:* — Explanation. — The cause will be known by putting the ques- 
tion, " Why ? " or " Wherefore ? " the manner, by " How ? " the means, 
by " By what means ? " the instrument, by " Wherewith ? " 

875* — Obs. The cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, prop- 1 
ter, ob, with the accusative ; or de, e, ex, prae, with the ablative ; as, depul- 1 
sus per invidiam, " rejected through envy ; " fessus de via, " weary with 
travel." 

870, — Obs. 2. The manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum., 
de, ex, per ; as, de more suo, particularly if the manner is expressed by a 
substantive without an adjective ; as, leg ail cum silentid audltl sunt, " the 
envoys were listened to in silence ; " — the means frequently by per and 
cum ; as, cum meis copils omnibus vexavl hostes, " with all my forces I har- 
assed the enemy." 

87 7 • — Obs. 3. The instrument, properly so called, seldom admits 
a preposition, though, among the poets, a, ab, de, sub, are sometimes used ; 
as, pectora trajectus ab ense, " having his breast pierced by a sword ; " exer- 
cere solum sub vomer e, " to work the ground beneath a ploughshare." 

878. — Rule XLIII. Ablative of agent — 

When an active transitive verb is used in the 
passive construction, its subject, if a living agent, 
is expressed by the ablative with a or ab. 

Active : Magister puerum laudat, The master praises the boy. 
Passive : Puer a magistro laudalur, The boy is praised by the master. 



879-887] ABLATIVE OF PKICE. 237 

870. — Obs. 4. By the poets the ablative of the agent is sometimes 
used without the preposition; as, scrlbcris Vario, " thou shalt be written 
of by Varius." — Hon. See also the dative; 844-846. 



880. — Rule XLIV. Utor, abutor, fruor, fun- 
gor, nitor, potior, vescor, govern the ablative ; as, 

Utilur fraude, He uses deceit. 

Abutitur libris, He abuses books. 

881. — Explanation. — These verbs are all originally reflective (or 
i middle) in sense. Thus, iifor means "I help myself ;" fruor, "I enjoy 
'myself," etc. ; and therefore the ablative is really an ablative of means. 
Thus, vescitur came, "he lives on flesh," lit, "he supports himself by 
» means of flesh." 

! 

882. — Obs. 1. Potior often governs the genitive; a>s, Potirl urbis, 
" To get possession of the city ; " Potirl rerum, " To possess the chief 
command." 

883. — Obs. 2. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor, and pascor, sometimes 
govern the accusative ; as, Potirl urbem, Cic. ; Officia fungi, etc. ; and 
also, in ancient writers, utor, abutor, and fruor. Bepasco and depascor 
have the accusative always. 

884.— Rule XLV. Ablative of Price.— The 
price of a tiling is put in the ablative ; as, 

Constitit talento, It cost a talent. 

Vendidit hie auro patriam, This man sold his country for gold. 

885. — Explanation. — The ablative is used because the price is the 
means by which an exchange is effected. 

For the genitive of indefinite price, see 799-802. 

S86. — Obs. 1. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a 
loun ; as, magno, permagno, parvo, paidulo, minimo, plurimo, vill, nimio. 
rhese refer, however, to some such noun as pretio, aere, etc., understood ; 
non potest parvo res magna constare, " a great thing cannot cost little." 

887. — Obs. 2. The verbs of exchanging, muto, commuto, per- 
mto„ are treated like verbs of buying and selling; but sometimes the 
ihing given and sometimes the thing taken, is regarded as the price, and 



238 ABLATIVE OF LIMITATION. [888-894 

put in the ablative : thus, cur valle permutem Sablnd dlvitias, " why should 
I change my Sabine valley for riches ? " — Hor., i. <?., " why should I buy 
riches at the price of my Sabine valley ? " glandem mutdvit arista, " he ex- 
changed acorns for grain." — Virg., i. e., he sold acorns, and received 
grain as the price. 



888. — Kule XLVI. Ablative of Description. 

— The ablative of a noun accompanied by an ad- 
jective is used to describe a person or thing ; as, 

Caesar fuit excelsd staturd, Caesar was of tall stature. 

See Rule XYI. (857-859) for the descriptive genitive. 



889.— Kule XL VII. Ablative of Limitation. 

— Respect ivherein, and the part affected, are ex- 
pressed in the ablative ; as, 

Pietdte filius, In affection a son. 

Jure periius, Skilled in law. 

Pedibus aeger, Lame in his feet. 

890. — Explanation. — The ablative, under this rule, is used to limit 
the signification of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and may be variously ren- 
dered to express the nature of the limitation intended ; as, in, in respect of, 
with respect to, with regard to, etc. 

891. — Exc. 1. The part affected, in imitation of a CrreeTc construc- 
tion, is sometimes expressed in the accusative ; as, Nudus membra, 
" Bare as to his limbs." — Virg. See accusative, Rule XL, 728. 

802. — Exc. 2. In like manner, a noun or pronoun, denoting that in 
regard to which, or with respect to which, any thing is, is said, or is done, 
is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, Nunc illos qui in urbe remanstrunt, 
"Now, in regard to those who remained in the city ; " Quod reliquum est, 
"As to that which remains." See 73 1. 

89 3. —Exc. 3. For such phrases as integer vitae ; discrucior animi ; 
animi pendeo ; recredbar animi ; see 779, 785. 

89 d. — Rem. When two objects are compared by means of the com- 
parative degree, a conjunction, such as quam, ac, atque, etc., signifying 



895-899] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON. 239 

" than," is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted. In the first, the 
construction of the case falls under other rules ; in the second, it falls under 
the following, viz. : 

893.— Eule XLVIII. Ablative of Compar- 
ison. — The comparative degree, without a con- 
junction, governs the ablative ; as, 

Didcior melle, Sweeter than honey. 

Praestantior auro, More precious than gold. 

Perennius aere, More durable than brass. 

! 

896. — Explanation. — The ablative under this Rule is supposed to be 
a particular application of the last rule : Sol major est terra, " The sun is 
larger than — i. e., in respect to or comparison with — the earth." When 
prae is used with the ablative, the same notion is apparent : Prae caeteris 
fortior, "Braver before (in presence of) others." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

897. — Obs. 1. Of these two modes of comparison, the ablative with- 
out a conjunction is commonly used when the thing is compared with 
the subject of a preposition ; as, Quid magis est durum saxo, quid 
mollius unda? "What is harder than a rock, what softer than water?" 
But when, in such a comparison, quam is used, the second substantive will 
be in the same case with the first, because in the same construction ; as, 
Melior est certa pax, quam sperdta victoria (est), " Better is a sure peace 
than an expected victory." 

808. — Note 1. The construction of the ablative without quam is 
sometimes used, especially by the poets, when the first substantive is the 
object of a verb ; as, Exegl monumentum aere perennius, "I have finished 
a monument more lasting than bronze." — Hor. Cur ollvum sanguine 
mperlno caulius vltat? " Why shuns he olive oil with more care than viper's 
blood ? " — Hor. This is always so when the second object of comparison is 
expressed hf a relative ; as, Hie Attalo, quo graviorem inimicum non Kabul, 
sororem in matrimonium dedit, " He gave his sister in marriage to At talus, 
than whom I had not a more dangerous enemy." 

800. — Obs. 2. But usually, if the thing is not compared with a 
subject, quam is used ; and then there are two cases : 

1st. If the verb after quam is not expressed, but may easily be 
supplied from the preceding clause, and if the first substantive 
is in the accusative, the second may be put by attraction in the 
accusative also ; as, Hominem callidiorem vidl naminem quam Phor- 
mionem, " I never saw a more cunning fellow than Phormio," in- 
stead of quam Phormio est 



240 OBSERVATIONS. [900-906 

2d. But if the verb after quam cannot be supplied from the 
preceding clause, the substantive must be in the nominative with 
est, fuit, etc., expressed ; as, Haec sunt verba M. Varrdnis, quam 
fuit Clodius, doctioris, " These are the words of M. Varro, a more 
learned man than Clodius ; " Argentum reddidistl L. Curidio, honiinl 
7io?i gi*dtidsidi*i quam C71. Calidius est, " You gave back the silver 
to L. Guridius, a man no more influential than Cn. Calidius." — Cic. 

900. — Obs. 3. Quam is frequently understood after plus, minus, 
and amplius, and sometimes after major, minor, and some other compara- 
tives without a change of case ; as, Capta plus {quam) quinque millia 
hominum, "More than five thousand men were taken." 

Note. — These words are also followed by the ablative without quam, 
according to the rule. 

001* — Obs. 4. When the second member of a comparison is an in- 
finitive mood, or a part of a sentence, quam is always expressed ; as, 
Nihil turpius est quam mentiri, " Nothing is baser than to lie." 

902* — Obs. 5. The comparative is often followed by the ablative of 
the following nouns, adjectives, and participles, viz. : opmione, spe, expecta- 
tidne, fide, — dicto, solito, — aequo, credibill, justo ; as, Citius dicto, lumida 
aequora pldcat, " Quicker than the word he calms the swelling seas," — 
Virg. These ablatives often supply the place of a clause ; as, Gravius 
aequo, equivalent to gravius quam aequum est, " More severe than is just." 

These ablatives are sometimes omitted ; as, Llberius vlvebat, sc. aequo, 
"He lived more freely than was proper;" i. e., "He lived too freely," or 
"rather freely." 

903. — Obs. 6. When one quality is compared with another, 

in the same subject, the adjectives expressing them are both put in the 
positive degree with magis quam, or in the comparative connected by 
quam; as, Ars magis magna quam difficilis, "An art rather great than 
difficult." Triumphus cldrior quam grdtior, "A triumph more famous 
than acceptable." Gr. Gr., 393, 3. 

904:. — Obs. 1. Pro is used after quam to express proportion; 

as, Praelium atrocius quam pro numero pugnantium, " A battle fiercer 
than was porportionate to the number of the combatants." 

905. — Obs. 8. Alius is sometimes construed like comparatives, and 
sometimes, though rarely, is followed by the ablative ; as, Ne putes alium 1 
sapiente bondque bedtum, " Think not that any other man is happy except 
(lit. than) the wise and good." 

906. — Obs. 9. The conjunction ac, or atque, in the sense of than, is 
sometimes used after the comparative degree instead of quam ; as, Arciius 
atque hederd procera adstringitur ilex, " More closely than the tall oak is 
bound with the ivy." 






907-914] VERBS OF PLENTY, LOADING, ETC. 241 

#07.— Rule XLIX. Verbs of plenty and 
scarceness, for the most part govern the abla- 
tive; as, 

Abundat divUus, He abounds in riches. 

Caret omrii culpa. He is free from every fault. 

90S. — Explanation. — The ablative after verbs of plenty may be ex- 
plained as an ablative of means (873), or of limitation, (889) ; after 
verbs of scarceness, as an ablative of separation (916). 

909* — Obs. 1. Verbs of plenty are such as Abundo, affluo, exubero, 
redundo, suppedito, scateo, etc. ; of want, Careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, destituor, 
etc. 

910. — Obs. 2. Egeo and indigeo sometimes govern the genitive 
after the analogy of adjectives (776) ; as, Eget aeris, "He needs money." 
— Hor. Non tarn artis indigent, quam labor is, " They do not require art so 
much as labor." — Cic. 



911. — Rule L. Verbs of loading, binding, 
clothing, depriving, and their contraries, govern 
the accusative and ablative ; as, 

Onerat naves auro, He loads the ships with gold. 

91£.— Explanation — The accusative under this Rule belongs to Rule 
VIII. The ablative is either an ablative of means (873), or an ablative 
of separation (916). 

OBSERVATIONS. 

QJS. Obs. 1. Verbs of loading are onero, cumulo, premo, opprinw, 

obruo, impleo, expleo, compleo ; of unloading, levo, exonero, etc.; of bind- 
ing astringo, ligo, alligo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqueo, etc. ; of loos- 
ing, solvo, exsolvo, llbero, laxo, expedio, etc. ; of depriving, privo, nudo, 
orbo, spolio, fraudo, Tmungo ; of clothing, vesiio, amicio, induo, cingo, tego, 
velo'corono ; of unclothing, exuo, discingo, etc. 

gi4-, Obs. 2. These verbs are sometimes followed by the ablative 

with a preposition expressed ; as, Solvere aliquem ex cattnis, "To loose 
one from chains."— Cic. The ablative is sometimes understood ; as, com- 
plet naves, sc. virls. — Virg. 
11 



242 ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION, ETC. [915-920 

915. — Obs. 3. Several of these verbs denoting to fill, likewise govern 
the genitive / as, Adolescentem suae temeritatis impiety " He fills the youth 
with his own rashness. " Some of them also vary their construction ; as, 
induit se vestibus, or vestes sibi ; Abdicare magistratum, Sall. ; Abdicare se 
magistrate, Cic. Compare 859. 



916.~Ruim LI. Ablative of Separation.— 

Separation from a person or thing is expressed by 
tlie ablative case ; as, 

Nodosa corpus proliibere cheragra, To save the body from knotty gout. 

917. — Explanation. — Though this is the fundamental meaning of the 
ablative case (87 2), it is for the most part in prose accompanied by a prepo- 
sition. 

918.— Kttle LIL Ablative of Origin— The 

participles natus, satus, ortus, editus, and the like, 
govern the ablative of the source ; as, 

Mercurius Jove natus, Mercury born of Jupiter. 

Obs. — Sometimes also with these words a preposition is expressed ; as 
ortus a Germanis, " sprung from the Germans," Caes. ; oriundl a Syra- 
cusis, " having their origin from Syracuse," Liv. 

919. — Kule LIIL These adjectives, dignus, 
indignus, contentus, praeditus, captus, and fretus, 

govern the ablative ; as, 

Dignus hondre, Worthy of honor. 

Contentus parvo, Content with little. 

Praeditus virtute, Endued with virtue. 

Captus oculls, Blind (injured in his eyes). 

Fretus viribus, Trusting in his strength. 

920.— Explanation.— The ablative with captus is to be explained as 
an ablative of limitation (889), with the rest of these adjectives, as an 
ablative of means (§1%). 



921-928] observations. 2±3 

021. — Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, dignus, indignus often take a 
subjunctive clause with qui ; as, Digitus qui imperet, " Worthy to rule ; " 
and sometimes in the poets an infinitive; as, Dignus amdri, "Worthy to 
be loved." — Cic. 

022. — Obs. 2. Dignus, indignus, and contentus,9.re sometimes followed 
by the genitive ; as, Haud indignus avorum, " Not unworthy of his 
ancestors." — Virg. 



923. — Eule LIV. Opus and usus, signifying 
need y require the ablative ; as, 

Est opus pecunid, There is need of money. 

Nunc usus vlribus. Now, there is need of strength. 

024:. — Explanation. — The ablative after these nouns is probably used 
after the analogy of verbs of scarceness (908). In this sense, they are 
used only with the verb sum, of which opus is sometimes the subject, and 
sometimes the predicate ; usus, the subject only. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

025. — Obs. 1. Opus, in the predicate, is commonly used as an 
indeclinable adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative ; as, Dux 
nobis opus est, " We need a general." — Cic. So, Nobis exempla opus sunt, 
" Examples are needful for us." — Cic. In these examples, opus, as an inde- 
clinable adjective, agrees with dux and exempla. This construction is most 
common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is always used with those 
denoting quantity; as, Quod non opus est, asse carum est, " What one does 
not want is dear at any price." — Cato apud Sen. 

020. — Obs. 2. Opus and usus are often joined with the perfect 
participle $ as, opus maturdto, "need of haste ; '* opus consultd, "need 
of deliberation ; " usus facto, " need of action." The participle has some- 
times a substantive joined with it after opus ; as, Mihi opus fuii Hirtio 
convento, " It behoved me to meet with Hirtius." — Cic. Sometimes the 
supine is joined with it ; as, Ita dicta opus est. — Ter. 

027. — Obs. 3. Opus is often followed by the infinitive 9 or by the 
subjunctive with ut ; as, Siquid forte, quod opus sit sciri, " If perhaps there 
is something which needs to be known." — Cic. Opus est ut lavem, " I must 
bathe." Sometimes it is used absolutely without a case, or with a case 
understood ; as, Sic opus est ; Si opus est. 

928. — Exc. Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the genitive ; 

as, Argentl opus fuit, "There was need of money;" sometimes by an 
accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably understood; as, 
Puero opus est cibum ; scil. habere, " The boy has need of (to have) food." 
— Plaut. 



244: CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. [929-934 

929. — Rule LV. Ablative of Measure.— 

The measure of excess or deficiency is put in the 
ablative; as, 

Sesquipede longior, Taller by a foot and a half. 

Novem pedibus minor, Less by nine feet. 

Quanta doctior, tanto submissior, The more learned the more humble. 

930. — To this Rule are to be referred the ablatives tanto, quanto, 
quo, eo, hoc, aliquanto, muUo, paulo, nihilo, etc., frequently joined to 
comparatives, and sometimes to superlatives. 



CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

931. — The circumstances of place may be reduced to three particu- 
lars : 1. The place where, or in which ; — 2. The place whither, or to which ; 
— 3. The place whence, or from which. 

N. B. — The following rules respecting place, refer chiefly to the 
names of towns. Sometimes, though very seldom, the names of 
countries, provinces, islands, etc., are construed in the same way. With 
these, however, the preposition is commonly added. 

1. The place where, or in which. 

932. — Eule LVI. The name of a town, denot- 
ing the place where, or in which, is put in the 
genitive; as, 

Vixit Romae, He lived at Rome. 

Mortuus est Mileti. He died at Miletus. 

933. — Exc. But if the name of the town where, or 

in which, is of the third declension, or plural number, 
it is expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage. 

Studuit Athmis, He studied at Athens. 

934:. — Explanation. — It is probable that these cases were originally 
Locatives : a case with the termination I in the singular. This accounts 
for the form ae in the 1st Declension, which was originally al (55) ; for the 



935-938] ctrcumstajstces of place. 245 

form I (for oi) in the 2d Declension ; and for such forms as Carthagini, 
Tlburi, riiri, in the 3d Declension, which frequently occur in MSS. 
instead of the ablative in e. The Locative case was mostly lost in the 
Dative, and the regular Dative occurs frequently for the Locative ; as, 
domui, for doml, " at home," in Cicero. 

935. — Obs. 1. When the name of a town is joined with an adjective, 
or common noun in apposition, a preposition is commonly added ; as, 
Romae in celebrl urbe ; or, in celebrl urbe Roma ; or, very rarely, Romae 
celebri urbe. 

Note. — In this construction, the name of a town, in the third declen- 
sion, frequently has the ablative singular in I : Habitat Carthagini, " He 
lives at Carthage ; " Tlburi genitus, " Born at Tibur." — Suet. See 934. 

930. — Obs. 2. The name of the town where, or in which, is sometimes, 
though rarely, put in the ablative when it is of the first or second de- 
clension; as, Tyro rex decessit, for Tyrl, "The king died at Tyre." — Just.„ 

Obs. 3. The preposition in is sometimes expressed before the ablative ; 
as, In Philippls quidam nunciavit, " A certain man reported at Philippi." 
— Suet. At, or near a place is expressed by ad, or apud, with the accu- 
sative ; as, ad, or apud Trojam, " at, or near Troy." 

937.— For nouns in general, Locality is commonly ex- 
pressed by the ablative with a preposition {in, sub). But the following 
ablatives are used without a preposition : 

1. JDextra, laeva, or sinistra, "on the right (left) hand ; " terra marique, 

" on land and sea ; " bello, " in the field." 

2. The ablatives of locus, terra, regio, via, iter, if an attributive is joined 

with them ; as, loco idoneo, " in a suitable place." 

3. The ablative of any noun with the adjective totus ; as, tota Asia, 

" in the whole of Asia." 



2. The place whither, or to which. 

938. — Rule LVII. The name of a town, de- 
noting tlie place whither > or to which, is put in 
the accusative ; as, 

Venit Romam, He came to Eome. 

Profectus est Alhenas t He went to Athens, 



24:6 CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. [939-944 

Obs. 4. Among the poets, the town to which is sometimes put in the 
dative ; as, Carthdginl nuncios mittam, " I will send messengers to Carthage." 
— Hor. But this is probably better explained as Dative of interest. See 
818. 

939* — Obs. 5. After verbs of telling, and giving, when motion to is 
implied, the name of a town is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, Ro- 
mam erat nuncidtum, " The report was carried to Rome ; " Messanam liter as 
dedit, " He sent a letter to Messana." 

94:0* — For nouns in general, motion to is commonly expressed 
by the accusative with a preposition (ad, in, etc.) ; ducitur in career em, 
" He is led into prison." 



3. The place whence, or from which. 

941. — Rule LVIII. The name of a town 
\vhence or from which, by or through which, is 
put in the ablative ; as, 

Discessit Coriniho, He departed from Corinth. 

Ldodiced iter fecit, He went through Laodicea. 

9d2. — Obs. 6. The place by or through which, however, is commonly 
put in the accusative with per ; as, Per Thebas iter fecit. — Nep. 

4. Domus and rus. 

943. — Rule LIX. Domus and rus are con- 
strued in the same way as names of towns ; as, 

Manet domi (934), He stays at home. 

Domum revertitur (938), He returns home. 

Domo arcessltus sum (941), I am called from home. 

So also, 
Vlvit rure or rtiri (934), He lives in the country. 

Abiit rus (938), He is gone to the country. 

Rediit rure (941 ), He has returned from the country. 

944=.— Obs. 1. Humi, militiae, and belli, are likewise construed in 
the genitive like names of towns ; as, jacet humi, " he lies on the ground ; " 
doml et militiae (or belli), " at home or abroad. " 



945-951] CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 247 

94:5. — Obs. 8. When domus is joined with an adjective, the prep- 
osition is commonly used ; as, in domo paterna. So, ad dornum paternam, 
ex domo paterna. Except with meus, iuus, situs, noster, vester, regius, and 
alienus ; then it follows the rule. When domus has another substantive 
after it in the genitive, it may be used with or without a preposition ; as, 
deprehensus est donii, domo, or in domo Caesaris. 

94:6. — Obs. 9. Rus, and rure, in the singular, joined with an adjective, 
are used with, or without, a preposition. But rura, in the plural, is never 
without it. 

947 • — Obs. 10. The names of countries, provinces, and all other 
places except towns, are commonly construed with a preposition ; as, 
natus in Italid ; abiit in Italiam ; rediit ex Italia ; transit per Italiam, etc. 
A few cases occur, however, in which names of countries, provinces, etc., 
are construed like the names of towns, without a preposition ; as, Pompeius 
Cyprl visus est, etc., " Pompey was seen at Cyprus." — Caes. 

948. — Obs. 11. The word containing an answer to the question 
whither ? is often put by the poets in the accusative without a preposi- 
tion ; as, Speluncam Dido dux et Trojdnus eandem deveniunt, " Dido and 
the Trojan leader come to the same cave." — Virg. Likewise, the answer 
to the question where I or whence ? in the ablative, without a preposition ; 
as, Silvis corpora foeda jacent, " Foul corpses lie in the woods." So, cadere 
nubibusj " to fall from the clouds ; " descender e coelo, " to descend from 
the sky." 



CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

949. — Rule LX. Time when, is put in the 
ablative; as, 

Venit hora teriia, He came at the third hour. 

950. — Rule LXI. Time how long, is put in 

tlie accusative, rarely in ablative ; as, 

Mansit paucos dies, He stayed a few days. 

Sex mensibus abfuit, He was absent six months. 

951. — Explanation. — A precise period, or point of time, is 
usually put in the ablative, — continuance of time, not marked with 
precision, for the most part, in the accusative, — time within which, 

by the ablative alone, or with a preposition : vix decern annis imam cepit 
urbem, " in ten years he hardly took one city." 



248 CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. [952-958 

952. — Note. — A point of future time for which an arrangement 
is now made, is expressed by ad or in with the accusative ; as, ad prandium 
me invltavit in posterum diem, " he invited me to dine with him next day ; " 
ad Idus Aprilis revertiminl, " come back by the 13th of April." 



OBSERVATIONS. 

953. — Obs. 1. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with 
a preposition, / such as, in, de, ad, ante, circa, per, etc. Sometimes ad, 
or circa, is understood before hoc, illud, id, isthuc, with aetdtis temporis, 
horae, etc., following in the genitive ; as (ad ) id temporis, for eo tempore, etc. 

954:. — Obs. 2. Precise time, before or after another fixed time, is 
expressed by ante, or post, regarded as adverbs, either with the accusative 
or ablative ; as, aliquot ante annds, " a few years before ; " paucis ante die- 
bus, " a few days before ; " paucos post dies, " a few days after," etc. ; ante 
or post preceding the accusative or usually following the ablative. 

So, to express three years before or after, we may have any of these 
expressions : 

Accusative. Ablative. ■ 

Ante, or post ires annds. Tribus annis ante, or post. 

Ante, or post tertium annum. Tertio anno ante, or post. 

Tres ante, or post annds. Tribus ante, or post annls. 

Tertium ante, or post annum. Tertio ante, or post anno. 

955* — Frequently quam, with a verb, is added to ante, or post ; as, 
Paucis post diebus quam Luca discesserat, " A few days after he had de- 
parted from Luca." Sometimes post is omitted before quam ;. as, Die 
vigesima quam creatus erat, " The twentieth day after he was appointed." 

956. — Obs. 3. Instead of postquam, we sometimes find ex quo, or 
quum, or a relative agreeing with the preceding ablative ; as, Octo diebus 
quibus has literas dabam, " Eight days after I gave these letters," i. e., the 
same eight days, at the beginning of which I sent this letter. 

957 • — Obs. 4. The adverb abhinc is used to express time since an 
event, joined with the accusative or ablative, without a preposition ; as, 
Factum est abhinc biennid, or biennium, u It was done two years ago." 



CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

958. — Kttle LXII. Measure or distance is 

put in the accusative, and sometimes in the abla- 
tive; as, 



959-965] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 249 

Murus est decern pedes altus, The wall is ten feet high. 

Urbs distat triginta millia, or triginta ) mi _ . -,. . ., . . « 

millibw passuum, * \ The clt ^ 1S distant ^^ miles - 

Iter, or itinere iinius diet. One day's journey. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

050. — Obs. 1. The accusative or ablative of measure is put after such 
adjectives and verbs of dimension as longus, lotus, crassus, profundus, 
alius ; Patet, porrigitur, eminet, etc. The names of measure are pes, cubi- 
tus, ulnus, digitus, palmus, mitte passuum, " a mile," etc. 

060. — Obs. 2. The accusative or ablative of distance is used only 
after verbs which express motion or distance ; as, eo, curro, diico, absum, 
disto, etc. The accusative, under this rule, may be governed by ad or per, 
understood, and the ablative by a, or ab. 

001. — Obs. 3. When the measure of more things than one is expressed, 
the distributive numeral is commonly used ; as, Muri sunt denos 
pedes altl, " The walls are each ten feet high."' Sometimes denum pedum, 
for d'endrum, is used in the genitive, governed by ad mensuram, understood. 
But the genitive is used in the plural only to express the measure of things. 

002, — Obs. 4. The distance of the place where any thing is said to 
be done, is usually expressed in the ablative or in the accusative with a 
preposition ; as, Sex millibus passuum ab urbe consedit ; or, ad sex millia 
passuum, " He encamped six miles from the city." — Caes. 

003* — Obs. 5. Sometimes the place from which distance is estimated 
is not expressed, though the preposition governing it is, and may be ren- 
dered off, distant , etc. ; as, Ab sex millibus passuum abfuit, " He was six 
miles off, or distant " (scil. Roma, from Rome). 

For the measure of difference (excess or deficiency), see 929. 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

004, — When a noun or a pronoun, together with a participle or an 
adjective, form a clause by themselves, and are not grammatically con- 
nected with the rest of the sentence, they are said to be absolute (loosed 
from the other words of the sentence). 

965. — Exile LXIII. Ablative Absoltite, — 

Words used absolutely are put in the ablative 
case, called the ablative absolute ; as, 
11* 



250 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. [966-971 

rr, ... . -n^., - - .. ( While Tarquin was king {lit. T. 

Tarqumio regnante, Pythagoras vemt, -j reigning ) ? Pythagoras came. 

( By pouring in darts (lit. darts hav- 
Telisconjectis,aciemperfregeruni, < ing been poured in), they broke 

( through the line. 

( If nature is our guide (lit. nature 
Natura duce, errarl non potest, < (being) guide), no mistake can be 

( made. 

9 66.— Explanation. — It is clear that the absolute clause in the first 
of these examples tells the time of the action ; in the second, tells the 
means; in the third, tells the condition or circumstances under 
which the principal assertion holds true ; and the ablative was doubtless 
used in Latin for the case absolute, because that case by itself expresses 
Time, Means, or Attendant Circumstances. 

967.— Obs. 1. As there is no Perfect Tarticiple ActiveX 
Latin (except in the case of deponent verbs), this Participle in English must 
in Latin usually be changed into the Passive, and put in the ablative abso- 
lute, agreeing with what was before its own object ; thus, " Caesar, having 
landed his army, hastens against the enemy," cannot be rendered exactly 
in Latin, since there is no word precisely answering to " having landed ; " 
but it may be translated by a slight change : " Caesar, his army having 
been landed, etc.," Caesar, exercitu exposito, ad hostes contendit. 

968.— Obs. 2. But Deponent verbs, having the perfect partici- 
ple (of passive form) with active meaning, admit of a literal rendering of 
the English ; thus, " Caesar, having said these things, dismissed the coun- 
cil," Caesar, haec locutus, concilium dimlsit. Sometimes both forms are 
combined : Caesar, equis omnium remotis, cohortdtus suds, proelium com- 
misit, " Caesar, having removed the horses of all, having exhorted his men, 
joined battle." 

969. — Obs. 3. Very rarely the ablative absolute is used when the 
participle might more naturally agree with a noun in the main sen- 
tence : Legio ex castrls Varronis, adstante ipso, " A legion from the camp 
of Varro, while V. himself was standing by," — where we should expect 
adstantis ipsius to agree with Varronis. • 

970. — Obs. 4. The ablative absolute is generally best rendered by 
various phrases introduced by such words as while, when, if, though, by, 
during, etc. See examples above. 

97 !• — Obs. 5. Some word, phrase, or clause of a sentence, sometimes 
supplies the place of the substantive, and has a participle with it in the 
ablative ; as, Nondum compertd quam regionem hostes petissent, " It being 
not yet ascertained what country the enemy had gone to ; " Audlto Barium 
appropinquare, " It being heard that Darius was drawing near." 



972-980] construction of the vocative. 251 

072. — Obs. 6. The verb sum having no present participle, two nouns, 
or a noun and adjective, are used in the case absolute without a participle, 
which is supplied in English by the word being ; thus, se duce, " he (being) 
leader ;" se consule, u he (being) consul," or, " in his consulship ; " so, C. 
Duillio et Cn. Corrielio Asind consulibus. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOCATIVE. 

073. — The vocative is used to designate the person or thing addressed, 
but forms no part of the proposition with which it stands ; and it is used 
either with or without an interjection. 



974. — Kule LXIV. The vocative case indicates 
tlie object spoken to ; as, 

Bee* te, Cyre, beatum ferunt, j ^f^^ d ° *«* pi0daim 

975. — Rule LXV. The interjections 0, heu, 
and joroh, are construed with the vocative ; as, 

Oformose puer ! fair boy ! 

976. — To these may be added other interjections of calling or ad- 
dressing ; as, ah, au, ehem, eheu, eho, eja, Item, heus, hul, id, ohe, and vah, 
which are often followed by the vocative ; as, Heus Syre, Ohe libelle. 

077* — Obs. 1. In exclamations, the person or thing wondered at, is 
put in the accusative, either with or without an interjection. See 725. 

07 S. — Obs. 2. A substantive in apposition with a vocative is some- 
times in the nominative ; as, Audi la, populus Albanus, " Hear, thou peo- 
ple of Alba." Sometimes even without apposition : Prael verba, pontifex 
maximus, " Repeat before me the words, chief pontiff." 

079. — Obs. 3. The interjections Hex and Vae govern the dative. 

See 727. 

080. — Obs. 4. Ecce and en usually take the nominative; as, Eece 
nova turba atque rixa. En ego. See 726. 



252 CASE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. [981-987 

CASES GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

981. — Rule LXVL Twenty-eight preposi- 
tions, ad, apud, ante, etc., govern the accusative ; as, 

Adpatrem, To the father. 

982. — Kule LXVII. Fifteen prepositions, a, 
ab, abs, etc., govern the ablative ; as, 

Apatre, From the father. 

Explanation, — The twenty-eight prepositions which govern the accusa- 
tive are those contained in the list 469, and the fifteen governing the 
ablative are those in 470. 

083. — Note. — Ab is used before vowels and h; a, or ab before con- 
sonants. Abs is very seldom used except in the phrase, abs te. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

984:. — Obs. 1. Clam, one of these fifteen, is sometimes followed by 
the accusative ; as, clam vos, "without your knowledge." When followed 
by a genitive Or dative, a substantive may be understood, or it may be re- 
garded as an adverb ; as, Clam patris, Ter. ; Mihi clam est, Plaut. 

085. — Obs. 2. Tenus, after a plural noun, commonly governs it in 
the genitive ; as, labrorum tenus, " up to the lips ; " and always follows its 
case. It is properly an indeclinable noun, u the direction." 

080. — Obs. 3. Cum is appended to the ablative of personal pronouns, 
and often to the relative (245) : mecum, nobiscum, quibuscum or cum quibus. 

987. — Rule LXVIII. The prepositions in, sub, 
super, and subter, denoting motion to, or ten- 
dency towards, govern the accusative ; as, 

Venit in Urbem, He came into the city. 

Amor in te, Love towards thee. 

Sub jugum missus est, He was sent under the yoke. 

Incidit super agmina, It fell upon the troops. 



988-993] A PREPOSITION IN COMPOSITION. 253 

988. — Eule LXIX. The prepositions in and 
sub, denoting situation, govern the ablative; 
super and subter the accusative, or, sometimes, 
the ablative ; as, 

Jacet in terra, He lies upon the ground. 

Media in urbe, In the middle of the city. 

Inpoetis, Among the poets. 

Sub moenibus, Under the walls. 

989* — Obs. 4. The few apparent exceptions to these rules are either 
corrected in the best editions, or are instances of what is called " locutio 
praegnans," where a preposition of rest is connected with a verb of motion, 
or v. v. This is very common in Greek. 

990. — Obs. 5. Super, in the sense of " concerning," governs the abla- 
tive : Rogitans super Hectore multa, " Asking much about Hector." 

991. — Obs. 6. The preposition in, with the accusative, usually signifies 
into, towards, until, for, against ; with the ablative in, upon, among. With 
both cases, however, considerable variety of translation is necessary to con- 
vey correctly the idea of the original. The following are instances : lC In 
the case of," talis in hoste fait Priamo. — Virg. " On account of," in quo 
facto domum revocdtus ; — In sex mensibus, " within six months ; " in dies, 
" from day to day ; " where there is progressive increase or decrease. So, 
in horas, u from hour to hour;" in capita, "per head;" in pueritia, 
" during boyhood ; " in hoc tempore, " at this time," etc. 

992* — Obs. 7. The preposition is frequently under stood before 
its cases ; as, Devenere locos, Virg. ; Homo id aetcdis, Cic. ; Propior mon- 
tem, Sall. ; in which ad is perhaps understood. So, Nunc id prodeo, sc. 
ob. — Ter. Maria aspera juro, sc. per. Se loco mover e, sc. e, or de. Quid 
Hid facias? sc. in or de, "What can you do in this case? " 

993. — Kule LXX. A preposition in compo- 
sition often governs its own case ; as, 

Adeamus urbem, Let us go to the city. 

Exedmus urbe, Let us go out of the city. 

Explanation. — By Cl its own case " is meant the case it governs when 
not in composition. This rule only takes place when the preposition may 
be separated from the verb, and placed before the case without altering 
the sense. Thus, adeamus urbem and edmus ad urbem express the same 
thing. 



254 CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. [994-998 

994* — Obs. 8. The preposition is often repeated after the 
compound word ; the case is then governed by the preposition repeated ; 
as, ex ndvibus expositl, " being landed from the ships." — Caes. 

Note. — Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after them ; 
such as, Affdris, alloquor, allatro, alluo, accolo ; circum with venio, eo, sto, 
sedeo, volo ; obeo, praetereo, abdico, effero, everio, etc. Some compounds 
with inter and praeter, commonly omit the preposition. The compounds 
of in, ob, and sub, generally take the dative (826) ; those of super generally 
the accusative. 

995. — Obs. 9. Some verbs compounded with e or ex are followed by 
an accusative or ablative ; as, Exire llmen, " To pass the threshold," Teh. ; 
Exire septis, " To get out of the enclosure," Virg. Some words com- 
pounded with prae take an accusative ; as, T'ibur aquae praefluunt, " Streams 
flow past Tibur," Hor. When the accusative is used, the verb has be- 
come a transitive one. (712.) 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

996. — Rule LXXI Adverbs are joined to 
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify 
and limit their signification ; as, 

Bene scribit, He writes well. 

Fortiter pugnans, Fighting bravely. 

Egregie fidelis, Remarkably faithful. 

Satis bene, Well enough. 

OBSERVATIONS, 

997 - — Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes joined with nouns, when used 
adjectively / as, Homerus plane orator, " Homer evidently an orator." 

Obs. 2. The adverb is usually placed near the word modified or limited 
by it. 

Negatives, 

998.— -Obs. 3. Two negatives in Latin, as well as in English, 
destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, Nee non sense- 
runt, "Nor did they not perceive ; " i. e., et senserunt, " and they did per- 
ceive." So, Non poteram non exanimarl metti, " I could not but be over- 
come with fear." — Cic. Non sum nescius, i. e., scio ; haud nihil est, "it is 
not nothing," i. e., " it is something;" nonnulli, "not none," i. e., "some;" 
nonnunquam, " not never," i. e., sometimes ; " non nemo, " not nbbody," 
i. e., " somebody," etc. 



999-1005] CASES GOVERNED BY ADVEKBS. 255 

999, — Obs. 4. Exc. In imitation of the Greek, however, two nega- 
tives in Latin, as well as in English, sometimes make a stronger negative ; 
as, Neque ille haud objiciet mihi, " He will not by any means object to me." 
Debebat Epicurus nullum nummum nemini, "Epicurus owed not a penny to 
anybody." Neque, and nee, and sometimes non, are especially thus used after 
a negative ; as, Non me carminibus vincet, nee Orpheus , nee Linus. 

1000* — Obs. 5. Non sometimes seems to be omitted after non modo, 
or non solum, when followed in a subsequent clause by ne quidem ; as, 
Mihi non modo irascl (i. e. non Irascl), sed ne dolere quidem impune licet. 
But in these cases the verb in the second clause is negatived by ne, and 
belongs to both clauses. 

1001* — Obs. 6. Certain adverbs are joined to adjectives 9 and 

also to adverbs, in all the degrees of comparison, for the purpose of im- 
parting greater force to their signification ; as, 

1st. To the positive are joined such adverbs as, apprime, admodum, 
vehementer, maxime, perquam, valde, oppldo, and per, in composition ; as, 
grcdum admodum, " very agreeable ; " perquam puerile, " very childish ; " 
etc. In like manner, parum, multum, nimium, tanium, quantum, aliquan- 
turn ; as, parum firmus ; multum bonus. 

1002* — 2d. To the comparative are joined, paulo, nimio, ali- 
quanto, eo, quo, hoc, impendio, nihilo ; as, Ed gravior est dolor quo cidpa 
major, " Grief is more severe in proportion as the fault is greater." — Cic. 
Sometimes, also, parum, multum, etc., as with the positive. 

1003. — 3d. To the superlative are joined longe, quam, facile, 
meaning u certainly," " undoubtedly ; " also, tanto, quanto, multo, etc. ; as, 
facile doctissimus, " certainly the most learned ; " longe bellicosissima (sc. 
gens), " by far the most warlike ; " quam maximus potest copias armat, " he 
arms as great forces as possible." 

1004:. — 4th. Quam (and also ut) is also used as an intensive word 
with the positive^ but in a sense somewhat different, resembling an 
exclamation; as, quam difficile est! "how difficult it is!" quam, or ut 
crudelis ? "how cruel ! " flens quam familiariter, " weeping how affection- 
ately," i. e., very affectionately ; quam severe, " how severely," i. e., very 
severely. 



CASES GOVERNED BY ADVERBS. 

1005. — Rule LXXII. Some adverbs of time, 
place, and quantity, govern the genitive; as, 



256 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. [1006-1013 

Pridie ejus diei, The day before that day. 

Ubique gentium. Everywhere. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

1006* — 1. Adverbs of time governing the genitive are, inter ed, 
posted, inde, tunc ; as, inter ed loci, " in the meantime ; " posted loci, " after- 
wards ; " inde loci, " then ; " tunc temporis, " at "that time." (771.) 

1007 • — 2. Of place, ubi and quo, with their compounds, ubique, 
ubicunque, ubiubi, qudvis, etc. Also, ed, hue, huccine, unde, usquam, nus- 
quam, longe, ibidem, etc. ; as, unde terrdrum, or gentium ; longe gentium ; 
ibidem loci. Also hue, ed, and quo, expressing degree; as, Ed auddciae 
— vecordiae — miseridrum, etc., "To that pitch of boldness — madness — 
misery," etc. 

1008. — 3. Of quantity, abunde, affatim, largiter, nimis, satis, 
parum, minime ; as, abunde gloriae ; affatim divilidrum ; largiter auri ; 
satis eloquentiae sapientiae parum est illi, or habet, "he has enough of 
glory, riches," etc. ; minime gentium, "by no means." (762, 771.) 

1009* — Obs. 1. Erg5 (for the sake of), instar, and partim, also 
govern the genitive ; as, dondrl virtutis ergo, " to be presented on account 
of virtue." Instar is properly a neuter noun, meaning " an image ; " equum 
instar monlis, " a horse like (an image of ) a mountain." 

1010. — Obs. 2. Pridie and postridie govern the genitive or accusa- 
tive ; as, Pridie Kalenddrum, or pridie Kalendds, sup. ante ; Postridie 
Kalenddrum, or Kalendds, sup. post. 

1011. — Obs. 3. En and Ecce govern the nominative or accusative; 
as, Ei causa; Ecce homo, or hominem ; sometimes a dative is added ; as, 
Ecce duds drds Ubi. — Virg. In such constructions, a verb may be under- 
stood. 

1012. — Obs, 4. Certain prepositions used adverbially by the poets, 
are followed by the dative; as, Mihi clam est, "It is unknown to me." 
Contra nobis. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 
I. Personal Pronouns. 

1013. — The nominative cases of the Personal 
Pronouns are not expressed except when necessary for 
emphasis, being sufficiently indicated by the person-end- 
ings of the verb: — 

Sentimus calere ignem, We feel that fire is hot. 

Nds consules desumus, We, the cousuls, fail in our duty. 



1014-1020] REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. 257 

1014:, — Obs. 1. There is, properly speaking, no personal pronoun of 
the third person. The place of it is commonly supplied by the distinctive 
pronoun is, and sometimes by the demonstrative ille. See 239. 

1015* — Obs. 2. The plural of the first person is often used for the 
singular : nos for ego, nobis for mihi ; and so also the possessive noster 
for meus. But the plural of the second person is not, as in English, used 
for the singular. 

1016. — Obs. 3. In the genitive plural the forms nostrum, ves- 
irum, are used as partitive genitives (Y71), and in connection with omnium: 
anus nostrum, " one of us " (not nostrl) ; omnium vestrum voluntas, " the 
wish of you all." 

101*7 . — Obs. 4. The forms nostrl, vestri (and so also the genitives, 
mel, tui, sul), are not true plurals, but are really Genitives sing, neuter of 
the Possessives noster, vester (meus, tuus, suus) ; and thus a gerundive is 
used in the gen. sing. neut. to agree with them, without regard to their 
reference : memor nostrl, " mindful of (our interest) us ; " copia placandl 
tui, " an opportunity of pacifying (your mind) you (of a woman) ; " vestri 
adhortandl causa, " for the sake of stimulating (your courage) you." 



II. Reflective Pronouns. 

1018. — A Heflective Pronoun is one which implies that the 
subject acts upon himself; and, consequently, such pronouns have no 
nominative case, since the subject of the sentence is their nominative 
for the time being: me consolor, "I console myself;" tibi noces, "you 
harm yourself;" Balbus se diligit, " Balbus loves himself." In the last 
instance, Balbus being the subject, and the person to whom se refers, 
shows that se is singular and masculine ; but in puellae se admlrantur, 
" girls admire themselves," the subject, puellae, makes se feminine and plural. 

1019. — The oblique cases of the First and Second Personal Pro- 
nouns are used sometimes in a reflective, and sometimes in a reciprocal 
sense : 

Omuls nos amamus, We all love ourselves. (Reflective.) 

Inter nos colloquimur, We converse with each other. (Reciprocal.) 

1020. — In simple sentences the Reflective Pronoun of the 
Third Person, se, and its Possessive, suus, are used chiefly in reference to 
the subject : 

xr . ._ . _ _ _ j- j^ -,„.„. ( Nicias is pleased at your recollection 

Nicias tua sui memoma aelectatur, -j « him 

Bestils homines utuntur ad suam Men use animals for their own ad- 
utilitdtem, vantage. 



258 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. [1021-1027 

1021* — Obs. 1. The Possessive suus sometimes refers to the object, 

or to another word : Caesarem sua ndtura miiiorem facit, " His own nature 
makes Caesar more gentle ; " and sometimes this leads to an ambiguity 
which the context only can clear up : Scipio suds res Syrdcusdnis restituit y 
" Scipio restored their own (not his) property to the Syracusans ; " Jusiitia 
suum cuique tribuit, il Justice assigns to each his own (not her own)." 

1022. — Obs. 2. When the subject is the First or Second Person, to 
which, of course, se, suits could not refer, they are used freely in reference 
to another word : Dicaearchum cum Aristoxend, aequall et condiscipulo suo y 
omitldmus, " Let us omit D. with A., his contemporary and fellow dis- 
ciple." 

1023. — Obs. 3. But generally, unless there is such close connection 
between the words as is seen in the above examples, the distinctive pro- 
noun is is used in reference to any other noun than the subject : 
Deum agnoscis ex operibus ejus (not suis\ li You recognize God from his 
works." 

1024:. — In complex sentences 9 when se or suus occurs in the 
subordinate clause, the reference is regularly to the subject of the prin- 
cipal sentence: 

Caesar omnibus, qui contra se arma Ceasar forgave all, who had taken up 
tulerant, ignovit, arms against him. 

1025. — Obs. 4. But sometimes se (suits) refers to the subject of the 
subordinate clause ; and sometimes occurs twice, referring once to 
the principal, and once to the subordinate object : Incusdvit eos quod sibi 
quaerendum putdrent, " He found fault with them because they thought it 
was their business to inquire." Ariovistus dixit neminem secum sine sua 
pernicie conlendisse, " A. said that no one had contended with him without 
his own ruin." 

1020* — Obs. 5. The reference of se to a subordinate subject is not 
allowed if ambiguity is caused by it ; and occurs most frequently in such 
idiomatic expressions as, quid sibi vellet, where the verb and the pronoun 
form but one notion. The oblique cases of the distinctive pronoun ipse 
are often used in reference to a subordinate subject if expressed with 
emphasis : Sendtus dixit own sua negligentid, sed ipslus subito adventa fac- 
tum, "The Senate said that it happened not through any negligence on 
their part, but owing to his (Pompey's) sudden arrival." 



III. Possessive Pronouns. 

1027* — Possessive Pronouns are seldom expressed, unless 
they are emphatic, or the reference is obscure : 

Apud matrem recti est, All is well with (your) mother. 



1028-1033] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 259 

Obs. Possessive pronouns, being equivalent to the genitive of the 
corresponding Personal, often have a genitive in apposition to the person 
implied in them. See 628. 



IY. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
1028.— 

Hie is the demonstrative of the First Person : this near me. 
Iste is the demonstrative of the Second Person : that near you. 
Hie is the demonstrative of the Third Person : that yonder. 

Judex hie noster, This judge of ours. 

Muta istam mentem, Change that purpose of yours. 

Jacet ille nunc prostratus, Yonder he lies now prostrate. 

1020, — Obs. 1. When two things have been mentioned, hie com- 
monly, but not always, refers to the latter 9 as being conceived to be 
nearer to the speaker, and ille to the former. Compare the French 
celui-ci and celui-ld. Caesar beneficiis magnus habebedur, integritdte vitae 
Cato. Ille mansuetudine cldi*us f actus, hulc severitds dignitcdem addiderat, 
" Ceasar was counted great for his generosity, Cato for the purity of his 
life. The former had gained renown by his gentleness ; on the latter, stern- 
ness had conferred distinction." 

1030, — Obs. 2. Ille often denotes " that well-7cnown : " Epami- 
nondds ille moriens apud Mantineam, a That famous E. dying near Man- 
tinea." 

1031. — Obs. 3. From being the pronoun of the second person iste 
came to be applied to that which is opposite to the speaker, particularly in 
courts of law; and in this way it gained the notion of depreciation 
or contempt which often attaches to it : Ex quibus generibus hominum istae 
copiae comparantur, " From what sorts of men those (vile) forces- are got 
together." 



'o v 



V. Distinctive Pronouns. 

1032.— The Distinctive Pronouns are is, idem, and ipse, 

which are all derived from the same root, and correspond in use exactly to 
the Greek Avroc. They all refer to objects as distinguished from others 
by the tvords of the sentence, and not, as do the Demonstratives, by 
their existing in this or that part of space. See Donaldson, Lat. Gr. p. 74. 

1033. — Is refers to some person or thing distinguished by the con- 
text : 
Asinius mortuus est. Is quum habe- Asinius died. This man having an 

ret filiam unicam, earn haeredem only daughter, left her heir to his 

boms suls institute, property. 



260 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. [1034-1040 

1034:, — Idem (the same) generally refers an additional predicate to a 
subject already mentioned : 

Cicero orator erat, idemque philoso- Cicero was an orator and also (lit 
phus, the same) a philosopher. 

1035. — Ipse (self, very,) gives emphasis to a word with which it 

agrees : 

Quaeram ex ipsa muliere, I will ask the woman herself. 

Tulliola fuitpraesto natali suo ipso Tullia was there, just on her birth 
die, day. 

1036* — Obs, 1. In use is corresponds to the oblique cases of Avrdg, 
used without a noun ; Idem answers to 6 Avt6c ; and ipse to Avrdg, used 
in agreement with a noun or pronoun. 

1037. — Obs. 2. Is is often joined to a conjunction, in the sense 
of our "and that too:" Vincula vero, et ea sempiterna, "Bonds indeed, 
and that too lasting for ever." 

1038. — Obs. 3. Is and idem are constantly used as antecedents 

to the relative pronoun ; and then is — qui sometimes means " such — as," 
and idem — qui, " the same — as " (690) : Neque tit is es, qui quid sis nescias, 
" Nor are you such a one as not to know what you are ; " Eodem modo me 
decepit quo te, " He has deceived me in the same way as (he has) you." 

Note. — After idem, instead of qui, we sometimes have ac, atque, ut : 
Eisdem fere verbis exponimus ut disputatum est, " We set the matter forth 
in nearly the same words as those it was discussed with." 

1039.— Obs. 4. Ipse, when joined to a personal pronoun, agrees 
with the subject or object 9 according to the degree of emphasis : Cato 
se ipse interemit, " Cato slew himself;" Fratrem suum, dein se ipsum inter- 
fecit, " He slew his brother, and afterwards himself." 

VI. Relative Pronouns. 

The construction of the Relative Pronoun is sufficiently explained in 
683-708. 

VII. Interrogative Pronouns. 
104:0.— Questions are of two kinds : 
(1.) Fact-questions, which inquire about a fact: i. e., whether a 

statement is true or not. These expect for their answer " yes " or 

" no." Such is, u Did Brutus kill Caesar ? " 

(2.) Word-questions, which inquire about the words which 
would correctly state a fact, assuming the fact itself to be real. 



1041-104:7] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 261 

These expect for their answer some noun, verb, or adverb. Such 
are, " Who killed Caesar ? " " When did Brutus kill Caesar ? " 
" How did Brutus kill Caesar ? " 

^ Note.— It is to be observed that we naturally ask Fact-questions with the 
rising inflection, and Word-questions with the falling inflection. 

1041.— Interrogative Pronouns and interrogative adverbs 
are used in asking word-questions* 

The interrogatives quis and quid are regularly used as substantives, 
i. e., without nouns ; and qui and quod as adjectives 9 i. e. y in agree- 
ment with nouns. 

Quis me vocat ? Who calls me ? 

Quod nefarium stuprum non per What monstrous wickedness has not 
#&»rc t come about through him ? 

104:2. — Obs. 1. Sometimes quis appears to be used adjectively : quis 
mm senator appellavit, " what senator accosted him ? " but in such cases 
the noun is rather to be regarded as an appositive. (622.) 

104:3* — Obs. 2. Sometimes qui is used without a noun: then it 
rather means " what sort of — " : qui sis, non unde natus sis, reputa, " con- 
sider who you are, not whence you were born." 

1044. — Obs. 3. Sometimes quis and quern are used in reference to 
females. 

1043. — Obs. 4. If only two persons or things are spoken about, uter 
is used, and not quis : quaeritur ex duobus uter dignior, ex pluribus 
quis dignissimus, " we ask, of two which is the worthier, of several which 
is the worthiest." 

1046. — Note. — Uter is sometimes found as a relative: haec el molesta 
erunt, in utro cidpa erit, " these things will be vexatious to that one of the 
two in whom the fault shalt be." — Cic. 



VIII. Indefinite Pronouns. 

1047* — When a speaker refers to some member or members of a 

class, which he is either unable or unwilling to specify distinctly, he makes 

use of an indefinite pronoun. " Some men say " — " a certain man 

I went " — " any one can say." But he may suggest that the individuals re- 

! ferred to are more or less definitely selected and contemplated in his mind. 

The several indefinite pronouns in Latin, accordingly, differ from each other 

[ in regard to the range or latitude of choice which the speaker has in his 

thoughts. They may be arranged in the following order : 



262 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. [1048-1053 

Quis means " any one," " a man," without any further suggestion. 

Quisque means " each one " of the class, referred to separately. 

Quilibet (quivis) means "any one " of the class, selected at pleasure. 

Quidam means " some one" in particular, known to the speaker. 

Aliquis (quispiam) means "some one" in particular, not necessarily 
known. 

Quisquam (ullus) means " any at all," hardly any, perhaps none to be 
found. 

104:8. — Quis, "any one," is always enclitic: i. e., attached in 
sound to a preceding word, very often to the relative, si, nisi, Tie, num, and 
the inseparable ec-, which makes it interrogative. 

Proprium est. quod quis aere merca- What a man has bought with money 

tus est, is his own. 

Ecquid attendis ? Do you mark at all ? 

104:9. — Obs. 1. Qui and quod are used adjectively : si qui 

etiam inferxs sensus est, " if there is any feeling to the shades." 

1050, — Quisque, " each," regards all the members of a class sepa- 
rately. It has four chief uses : 

(1.) In connection with the reflective pronoun, after which it gener- 
ally stands. 
Suum quisque noscat ingenium, Let each man learn his own capacity. 

105 1. — (2.) In connection with the relative pronoun. It then 
stands in the relative clause, though " each " stands in English in 
the antecedent clause — 

Quam quisque norit artem, in hac s'e Let each man exercise himself in the 
exerceat, art which he has learned. 

1052. — (3.) In connection with superlatives (often two), it im- 
plies that the assertion in the predicate is regulated in its intensity 
by the degree of the quality attributed by the adjective : 

Altissima quaeque flumina minimo The deepest rivers slip along with 
sono labnntur, least sound. 

1053. — Obs. 2. Often the two superlatives belong to different clauses, 
and then ut quisque begins the first, and ita the second : Ui quisque est vir 
optimus, ita difficillime esse alios improbos suspicdtur, " The better a man is, 
the more hard does he find it to suspect others to be scoundrels." 



1054-1061] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 263 

1054=.— -(4.) In connection with ordinal numerals, to give them 
the notion of exactness or of regular recurrence : 

Decimus quisquefusti necdtur, Every tenth man is beaten to death. 

Prima quoque tempore ad sendtum At the earliest possible moment a 
refertur, motion is made to the Senate. 

1055. — Quilibet and qui vis, any you please, give the widest range 
| of selection. If the class consists of two only, utervis, uterlibet, are 
employed. 

Qulvis homo potest quemvis turpem Any man can put forth any disgrace- 
de quolibel rumoremproferre, ful report about anybody. 

1056. — Quidam, a certain one, refers to some particular one, known 
to the speaker. 

Non pugnds narrat, quod quidam He does not talk of his battles as a 
facit, certain person (I could name) does. 

1057» — Obs. 3. Quidam is often used to modify some strong epithet 
or metaphor : often with quasi, " as it were : " Omnes bonae artes quasi 
cogndtione quddam inter se continentur, " All good arts are bound together 
as it were by a kind of kinship." 

1058. — Aliquis, some one, refers to some particular one, though it 
may not be known which. 

Feret haec aliquam tibifdma salutem, This fame will bring you some safety. 

1050. — Obs. 4. The indefinite pronouns and adverbs (aliquando, ali- 
quamdiu, etc.), compounded with the inseparable prefix ali-, require for 
the most part the English some (emphatically opposed to much, all, etc.), 
in their translation : est hoc aliquid, lametsl non est satis, " this is something, 
yet it is not enough ; " vult dijudicdrl ; sir 6, verum aliquando tamen, " he 
wants to have the matter settled : late, but still at some time." 

1060. — Obs. 5. Quispiam is used nearly in the same way as aliquis, 
but without quite so much emphasis. stultum hominem, dixerit quispiam, 
f fool, some one may say." Quispiam is, however, used also after neg- 
atives, and then has nearly the force of quisquam (1061), with which it is 
sometimes confounded in MSS. 



106 lo — Quisquam, any at all, any single, always implies that the 
speaker conceives that hardly any one member of the class will answer. It 
is, therefore, used in sentences which are negative, or virtually negative. 



264 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [1062-1065 

^ ,.. , _ ._ ,_ - (As long as a single man shall be 

Quamdiu guuquam erti qm te defer,, \ foun | boW * h tQ defend 

dereaudeat^ives, } you ghall Uve . 

,,. ... ., ... (Without companions no one at- 

Szne «*• nemo qmdquam tale \ any thing at all of the 



\ Mnd tS 



Quid est, quod quwquam afferre What is there which any one can 
possit, advance ? 

1062, — Obs. 6. Quisquam is always used substantively, and 

has for its adjective ullus ; num censes ullum animal sine corde esse posse, 
" do you think that any animal can be without a heart ? " 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON SENTENCES AND THEIR COM- 
BINATIONS. 

1063* — Simple Sentences (616) may be of three kinds. They may 
contain the statement of — 

(1.) An Assertion : "The soldier fights bravely." 
(2.) A Question: "Does the soldier fight bravely?" 
(3.) A Command : " Fight bravely, soldier." 
When used in this independent way they may be called Princi- 
pal sentences. 

1064:. — But it is possible to use them, or at least their matter or sub- 
stance, in a dependent way, by making them the object or subject 
of a verb. Thus: 

(a.) " Caesar says — that the soldier fights bravely." 
(6.) " Caesar asks — whether the soldier fights bravely." 
(c.) " Caesar orders — that the soldier fight bravely." 

In each of these last sentences it is clear that the matter or substance 
of the previous assertion, question, command, is used as the object of the 
verbs says, asks, orders, respectively. Those simple sentences are, there- 
fore, so far used just as nouns substantive might be used ; and, 
therefore, they may be said to be used substantively or nom- 
inally. 

1065. — We may say, therefore, that what is in — 

1063. (1.) A Principal assertion becomes in 1064 (a,) a Nomi- 
nal assertion. 



1066-1070] sentences. 265 

1063. (2.) A Principal question becomes in 1064 (b.) a Nomi- 
nal question. 

1063. (3.) A Principal command becomes in 1064 (c.) a Nomi- 
nal command. 

1066*— Complex Sentences (616) consist of two parts, one of 

which is dependent upon the other in such a way that it is only used for 
the purpose of making more clear some point about the other. Thus, 
" Caesar marched towards Home, when he had crossed the Rubicon," is a 
complex sentence. The first part of it is an assertion, independent, and 
capable of standing by itself. The second part is an assertion too ; but it 
contains the word " when," which makes it incapable of standing by itself, 
and shows that it is here given, not for its own sake, but only to tell us the 
time of the action asserted in the first part. 

1067. — We may say, therefore, that in a Complex sentence — 
The part capable of standing alone is a Primary sentence. 
The part incapable of standing alone is a Secondary sentence. 

1068. — Further, the Complex Sentence given in 1066, since it 
contains an assertion, is capable of being used as the object of a verb. 
Thus we can say, " The historian relates — that Caesar marched towards 
Rome, when he had crossed the Rubicon." Here the words, Caesar marched 
towards Rome, are used as the object of the verb relates, and they make, 
therefore, a Nominal assertion ; whereas in 1066 they formed a Prin- 
cipal assertion. 

1069. — We see, therefore, that Primary sentences (1067), i. e., such 
as can stand alone, may be used either as Principal sentences or as Nomi- 
nal sentences ; and that Secondary sentences (1067), i. e. y such as cannot 
stand alone, may be attached to Primary sentences, whether used princi- 
pally or nominally. 

1070. — Lastly, we may attach one Secondary sentence to 

another, to make some point about it clear. Thus, " Caesar marched 
I towards Rome, when he had crossed the Rubicon, which was the limit of 

his province." The words, which was the limit of his province, form a 
' secondary sentence (for they are incapable of standing by themselves), but 

they are attached to the previous secondary sentence, in order to tell us 

something about the Rubicon. 

The following Table presents the above remarks in one view, and con- 
tains, besides, the names of the moods of the verb proper to be employed 
in each case, where the rules are sufficiently general to be of service : 

12 



286 voices. [1071-1074 

1071.— 



r Primary(X%1) 
used as 



'•Prtnrtnni (Assertions, Ind%catwe (1079). 

n$£ P 1 Questions, Indicative (1101). 

^iubcj;. j Commands, Imperative (1110). 

Waminal (Assertions, Infinitive (1135). 

rt!Kt\ •< Questions, £w&Jtmcti«e (1182). 

U"o*;- ( Commands, Subjunctive (1200). 



I Principal sentences, 
Secondary (1067), attached to k Nominal sentences, Subjunctive (1291). 

^ | Secondary sentences, 

1072, — Note 1. There is a further subdivision of secondary sentences, 
which, though important, is omitted in the above table, since no distinction 
of mood is based upon it. This division is as follows : 

Secondary Sentences are — 

(A.) Adjectival, i. e., qualifying a noun in the Primary sentence 
just as an adjective might do. These are introduced by the 
Melative Pronoun, and the noun qualified is its antecedent. For 
example : " The man is wise — who speaks little." Here the second- 
ary sentence, "who speaks little," describes the antecedent, man, in 
precisely the same way as the adjective, " taciturn," might do. 

(B.) Adverbial, %. e., qualifying the verb (or the action) in the 
Primary sentence just as an adverb might do. These are intro- 
duced by the various subordinating conjunctions (495), which may 
be called for shortness, sub junctions* For example : "He lies 
still — where he died." Here the secondary sentence, "where he 
died," limits the verb lies, just as the adverb, " yonder," might do. 

Note 2. In the above table (1071) no mood is assigned to two of the 
heads, because in those cases several rules operate. In the other cases, too, 
there are certain exceptions and limitations which will be mentioned in 
their proper places. 

For the agreement of a verb with its subject in Person and Num- 
ber, see 634, 649. 



VOICES. 

1073. — The Active Voice of a transitive verb represents the 
action as proceeding from the subject (263), and affecting an object : Brutus 
Caesarem occidit, " Brutus killed Caesar." 

The JPassive Voice represents the action as directed towards the 
subject (263) : Caesar a Bricto occisus est, " Caesar was killed by Brutus." 

Therefore in changing from the Active to the Passive construction — 

1074 — Eule LXXHI. The object of an 

Active verb becomes the subject of the Passive ; 



1075] voices. 267 

and the subject of the Active becomes the abla- 
tive of the agent (878), or of the means (873) ; 

as, 

(Act.) Fllius rem paternam ab- The son wastes his father's sub- 

sumit, stance. 

(Pass.) lies paterna a fllid (878) His father's substance is wasted by 

absumitur, the son. 

(Act.) Bellum opes urbis absump- War wasted the resources of the 

sit, city. 

(Pass.) Opes urbis bello (873) ab- The resources of the city were wasted 

sumptae sunt, by war. 

1075. — Rule LXXIV. Verbs which govern 
another ease besides their direct object in the 
Active, may retain that case in the Passive ; as, 

Accusor furti, I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius comparator Homer d, Virgil is compared to Homer. 

Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar. 

Navis onerdtur auro, The ship is loaded with gold. 

This Rule may be subdivided into the five following: 

I. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and admonishing, in the 
Passive, govern the Genitive. See 793. 

II. Verbs of valuing, in the Passive, govern such genitives as magiil, 
parvi, nihili, etc. See 799. 

III. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring, and taking away, iu the 
Passive, govern the Dative. See 855. 

IV. Verbs of asking and teaching, in the Passive, govern the Accusa- 
tive. See 734. 

V. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, depriving, and their contraries, 
in the Passive, govern the Ablative. See 907, 911. 

Obs. 1. The remote object of the active voice is never, in Latin, 
converted into the subject of the passive, except in a few instances, which 

| are manifest Graecisms. See Greek Gram., § 154, Obs. 2. In English, 
however, there are some expressions in which this is allowed. See An. 
and Pr. Eng. Gr., 814. 

Hence, where, in some cases, the Greek and the English idioms admit 
of two forms of expression, the Latin admits of only one, e. g., " This was 
told to me," or, " I was told this," is rendered into Latin by the first 

\ form ; thus, Hoc mihi dictum est. But we cannot say, according to the 

i second form, Hoc dictus sum. 



268 USE OF THE MOODS. [1076-1080 

107 6. — Obs. 2. Intransitive verbs, having no object (263), can 
have no true passive. They are, however, used with the passive form as 
impersonals. See 453. 

Obs. 3. Deponent verbs with a passive form, have an active mean- 
ing, transitive or intransitive. See 304, 305. 

USE OF THE MOODS. 

1077. — The Finite Moods, with endings distinctive of Time, 
Number, and Person, are the Indicative, the Imperative, and the Subjunc- 
tive. The Infinitive Mood has forms only to discriminate actions 
or states as unfinished, finished, or to be expected. 

1078. — The three Finite Moods may be thus charac- 
terized : 

The Indicative Mood represents a fact as real. 

The Imperative Mood represents a fact as com- 
manded. 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a fact as con- 
ceived. 

Note. — The difference between the Indicative (the mood of Real- 
ity), and the Subjunctive (the mood of Conception), will be felt, if 
such a sentence as the following be considered : Aliis nocent, ut in alios 
liberates sint, " They injure some, that they may be generous to others." 
Here, aliis nocent is represented as a fact actually realized and existing. 
But the latter clause only states something which is conceived in the 
mind, and may or may not be realized. 



THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
1079.— Rule LXXV. The Indicative Mood 
is used in making assertions of facts ; as, 

Sol occidit, The sun sets, or is setting. 

Note. — In this Rule only principal assertions are meant. (1063.) 

USE OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

The Present {Present Imperfect) Tense is used to express : — 

1080. — 1. Acts or states continuing (imperfect) at the pres- 
ent time : Nunc scio quid sit amor, " Now I know what love is." — Yibg. 



1081-1087] USE OF THE TENSES. 269 

1081. — 2. Facts which are generally true; true now and 
always : Voluptds sensibus nostris blanditur, " Pleasure coaxes our senses." 
—Cic. 

1082. — 3 ; Facts really past, which are vividly stated &s pres- 
ent {Historical Fresent) : Dicto parutre, dtsiliunt ex equls, provo- 
lant in primum, " They obeyed orders : they leap from their horses, they 
fly forward to the front." — Liv. 

1083 , — 4. Facts existing at the present 9 and also in the time 
immediately preceding. In this use, the temporal adverbs jam, jam- 
din, jamdudum, are generally employed ; and, in English, have is used : 
Pestem in nos omnes jamdiu machinaris, " You have been this long while 
plotting ruin for us all." — Cic. 

1084:, — 4. Facts really future, in secondary sentences, if the 
primary contain a future: Si urgemus obsessos, perficietur helium, "If we 
(shall) press the besieged hard, the war will be finished." 

1085, — Obs. 1. In the passive voice, the present tense represents its 
subject as at present acted upon, or as the object of an action present and 
continuing, and is usually rendered into English by the verb to be, and the 
perfect participle, as amatur, " he is loved," and this rendering will always 
be correct when the English verb in the present passive expresses continu- 
ance ; as, he is loved, feared, hated, respected, etc. 

1080. — Obs. 2. But there are many verbs in which this rendering of 
the present would be incorrect, as it does not express the present receiving 
of an action, but rather the present and continuing effect of an act, which 
act itself is now past. In all such cases, it is more properly the rendering 
of the perfect than of the present, and it is often so used. Thus, domus 
aedificdta est ; opus per actum est ; epistola scripta est, may be properly ren- 
dered, " the house is built ; " " the work is finished ; " " the letter is writ- 
ten ; " because in the English, as well as in Latin, the building of the house, 
the finishing of the work, and the writing of the letter, are represented as 
acts now past, and which are present only in their effects. The proper 
rendering of such verbs in the present passive, in English, is by the verb 
to be, and the verbal substantive in ing in the passive sense ; thus, domus 
aedificatur, " the house is building ; " opus peragitur, " the work is finish- 
ing;" epistola scrlbitur, "the letter is writing." When this mode of ex- 
pression is not authorized, and when the other would be improper, it will 
be necessary to express the precise idea of the present by some other form 
of expression. See An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., App. V., I., and II., p, 235. — Prin- 
ciples of Eng. Gr., App. XIX., p. 211. These same remarks are also appli- 
cable to the next tense. 

The Imperfect {Fast- Imperfect) Tense is used to express — 

1087* — 1. A fact continuing (imperfect) in past time: Anus 
subtlmen neb at ; ea texebat, "An old woman was spinning a woof; she (the 
girl) was weaving." — Ter. 

Obs. This tense, strictly speaking, corresponds to the past-progressive 
in English (An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., 4H, 2.— Principles of Eng. Gr., 199, 2). 



270 USE OF THE TENSES. [1088-1096 

It is often rendered, however, by the past tense in its ordinary form, and 
should always be so, when the verb expresses a continued act or state ; as, 
amdbat, "he loved; " thnlbat, "he feared." 

1088. — 2. A fact customary at past time: Mdjores nostrl ll- 
bertis non multo seats ac servis imperdbant, " Our ancestors used to govern 
their freedmen pretty nearly as they did their slaves." — Oic. 

1089.— S. A fact attempted, but not accomplished: Porsena 
earn terrebat, " Porsena tried to frighten him." 

The Future Tense is used to express — 

1090.— Facts which will occur in Future time: Crm 
ingens iterdbimus aequor, " To-morrow we shall again be traversing the 
vast ocean." — Hor. 

1091. — Obs. The Future is sometimes an imperative in force 
(1116): Haec tibi erunt citrae, " Let these things your care" (lit. shall be 
for a care to you). — Cic. 

The Perfect Tense is used — 

1092. — 1. As a present-perfect, to express a fact as completed 
(perfect) at the present time : Venl, ut pecuniam tibi solvam, " I have 
come to pay you the money." 

1093. — 2. As a Perfect-Indefinite (Aorist), to represent a fact as 
simply past: Livius fdbulam dedit anno ante ndtum Ennium, "Livius 
exhibited a play the year before the birth of Ennius." 

Obs. 1. The first use corresponds to the English present-perfect (An. 
and Pr. Gr., 4(V7); the second^ or Perfect-Indefinite, corresponds to the 
English past tense (An. and Pr. Gr., 415). In this sense it is commonly 
used in historical narratives, like the Greek aorist ; thus, Caesar exercitum 
flnibus Italiae admovit, Rubiconem transiit, Romam occupuvit, " Caesar 
marched his arinv," etc. 



v i 



1094:. — Obs. 2. The Perfect Tense is used after pcstquam, ut pri- 

mum, simul ac, etc., where, in English, we use the Past-Perfect : Caesar, 
posiquam copids vidit maturavit, " Caesar, as soon as he had seen the 
forces, made haste." (1249.) 

1093. — Obs. 3. The Perfect sometimes expresses the completeness 
of a fact with so much force as to imply that it does not exist in the 
Present: Fuii ingens gloria Tenerum, "The great glory of the Trojans was 
(and is no more), i. e., has had its day." — Virg. 

The Pluperfect (Fast- Fer feet) Tense is used to express — 

1096. — A fact as completed (Perfect) at a point of past time: 
Pausanids eodem loco sepulius est, ubi vitam posuerat, "Pausanias was 
buried in the same place where he had laid dawn his life. 



1097-1101] TENSES EST EPISTOLARY STYLE. 271 

1097.— Obs. 1. The Aorist and the Past-Perfect are often used in 
connection with the Past-Imperfect, when the last represents a fact as con- 
tinued, in contrast with completed facts : Conticuere omuls, intentique ora 
tenebant, " All were still, and with eager attention were keeping their eyes 
fixed upon him." Irruerant Banal et tectum omne tenlbant, " The Danaans 
had rushed in, and were occupying the whole dwelling" Virg. 

The Future-Perfect Tense is used to express- 
ions.— A fact as completed (Perfect) at a point of future 

tune: Ut sementem feceris, ita metes, u As you shall have sowed, so shall 

you reap." 

1099.— Obs. 1. The Future-Perfect is often used to indicate the 
certainty or rapidity of the result ; and often then it occurs in two 
connected clauses : Si te videro, resplravero, " If I shall have seen you, I 
shall at once breathe again." 



TENSES IN EPISTOLARY STYLE. 

1100. — As letters often did not reach the person addressed till 

long after they were written, the Romans frequently made allowance for 

this interval, and adapted the tenses they used to the time at which the 

letter would be read ; i. e., they often used the past-impevfect for the 

present-imperfect, and the past-perfect for the present-perfect : 

JEtsl nihil habebam novi, quod post Though I have nothing new that has 

accidisset quam dedissem ad te occurred, at least since I put my 

Philogenl Uterus, lamen quum last into the hands of Philogenes 

Philotimum Romam remitterem, for you, yet as I am sending Phil- 

scribendum aliquid ad te fuit. — otimus back to Rome, I am bound 

Cic, Att. vi. 2. to write something to you. 

Obs. 1. The terms yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, and often the word here, 
are avoided for the same reason. 

Obs. 2. This change of the tenses occurs chiefly at the beginning and 
end of letters, where the writer has it most forcibly impressed on his mind 
that he is not in conversation. 

1101.— Kule LXXVI. The Indicative Mood 

is used in asking Questions about Facts. 

Quota hard sol occidet ? At what o'clock will the sun set ? 

Num meg are audts ? Do you venture to deny it ? 

Note. — Of course, this Rule refers only to Principal Questions. See the 
table in 107 1. 



272 INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. [1102-1109 

1102* — Obs. 1. In the first example above, the words so? occidet, by 
themselves, express an assertion, " The sun will set." It is only the pres- 
ence of the interrogative profioun quota, and not (as in English) a 
change in the order of the words, which shows that a question is asked. 
Such questions are Word-questions. See 1040, 1041. 

Obs. 2. In the second example, the particle num shows that a question 
is asked : but this is a Fact-question (10±0), since the answer " no " is 
expected. 



INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 

1103, — The interrogative particles ne (enclitic) and num are 
used in asking Fact-questions (1040). 

Pergisne earn, artem illadere ? Do you go about to scorn that art ? 

Num locupletiores quaeris testes ? Do you require more trustworthy witnesses ? 

1104, — Obs. 3 The particle ne is enclitic 9 and is always appended 
to the first word of the question, except sometimes when united with ndn, 
as in canis nonne similis lupo, "is not a dog like a wolf? " 

llOo* — Obs. 4. When ne is the particle used, it is not indicated what 
answer the speaker anticipates. But if num is employed, the answer no 
is expected. See examples above. 

1106, — Obs. 5. When ne is appended to non (nonne), the answer 
yes is expected : nonne animadvertis, " do you not observe ? " 

1107* — Double questions are those fact-questions which pre- 
sent an alternative. The first member commonly has utrum, num, or ne, 
and the second almost always an, rarely ne. Sometimes the particle is 
omitted in the first member. 

Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, Is that your fault or ours ? 

Isne est quern quaero, anndn, Is that the man I am seeking or not ? 

Sunt haec tua verba, necne, Are these your words or not ? 

Obs. 6. Annon and necne, " or not," are written as single words. 

1108* — Obs. 7. An is sometimes apparently used before single 
questions; but there is always an alternative implied, though not ex- 
pressed: An Pamphilus venit? ("Have you any thing else to say,) or 
is Pamphilus really come ? " 

1109. — Obs. 8. The following table gives the sequence of the In- 
terrogative Particles, when there are two or three alternatives : 



1110-1114] THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 273 



First alternative. 


Second. 


Utrum 


An 


-Ne 


An 


(Omitted) 


An 


(Omitted) 


-Ne 



Tliird. 
An 
An 
An 



THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

1110.— Rule LXXVIL The Imperative 

Mood is used in giving commands, directions, 
advice, entreaties. 

Dissolve frigus, Thaw away the cold. 

Si quid in te peccavl, ignosce, If I have done you any wrong, pardon me. 

TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

1111. — The Present gives directions with reference to the im- 
mediate present, or without reference to any definite time. It is 
also used in salutations. 

Recognosce mecum noctem ittam, Review with me that night. 

Carpe diem, Seize the (present) day. 

Salve / Ave ! Hail to thee ! farewell ! 

1112. — The Future gives directions with reference to the future, 
and is particularly used in laws, wills, etc. 

Hbminem mortuum in urbe ne sepe- Thou shalt not bury nor burn a 

llio, neve urito, corpse in the city. 

Servus mens liber esto, My slave shall be free. 

111S. — Obs. 1. In negative commands (prohibitions), not is ex- 
pressed by ne (very rarely by nan), and where there are two or more con- 
secutive prohibitions by ne — neve (neu) } or neve — neve (rarely nee). 

1114:. — Obs. 2. The present imperative is rarely used in prohibi- 
tions. Instead of this, very often the imperative noli (418) with the infini- 
tive was used : noil te obllviscl Ciceronem esse, " do not forget that you are 
Cicero." So, also, cave, " beware ; " cave facias, " see you do it not." 
Also, the Present Imperfect or Present Perfect of the subjunctive : tit ne 
quaesieris, "do not you inquire" — the latter especially in the second 
singular. 

12* 



*D V 



274 THE INFINITIVE MOOD. [1115-1122 

11 IS. — Obs. 3. The affirinative imperative is often expressed by 
various circumlocutions : curd ut valeds, " look after your health ; " fac 
bonam spem habeas, " take heed that you have a good hope ; " and often by 
the subjunctive alone. See 1198. 

111S, — Obs. 4. The Futare Indicative is sometimes used for the Im- 
perative: in dextram partem taciti translbitis, " pass quietly to the right." 
— Liv. See 1091. 

lilt. — Obs. 5. In a few cases the forms of the future imperative 
were used in place of those of the present : sclto, scitote, " know ye ; " sic 
habetOj " be sure." 



THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

illS.— Rule LXXVIII. The Infinitive Wood 

is an indeclinable verbal substantive, which, is 
used in the nominative or accusative case, in con- 
nection with a verb ; as, 

Mentlrl turpe est. To lie is base. 

Cupio discere, I desire to learn. 

1119. — Explanation. — In the first of these examples it is clear that 
mentlrl, "to lie," or "lying," is the subject of est, and is therefore in the* 
nominative / and that turpe is the complement of est in the neuter, 
because mentlrl (being indeclinable, 35) is neuter. In the second example, 
discere, " to learn," or u learning," is used as the object of the transitive 
verb cupio, and is therefore in the accusative case. 

1120. — Obs. 1. There are some passages, particularly in the poet?, 
in which the infinitive seems to be used for other cases than the nom- 
inative or accusative. But many of these may be explained by the consid- 
eration that a phrase may have the construction of a simple verb. Thus : 
Paratus sum frumentum dare, " I am prepared to give {for giving) corn," 
Cic, is equivalent to volo dare. So again, Quibus in otio vivere copia erat, 
" Who had an opportunity to live {of living) at ease," Sall., is equivalent to 
Quibus licebat vivere. 

1121.— Obs. 2. The poets, however, use the infinitive freely after 
adjectives, which in prose would require a Genitive (755) : cldere nes- 
cius, for cedendl, " not knowing how to yield ; " cantare perltl, for cantandl, 
" skilled in singing." 

1122. — Obs. 3. The Infinitive is rarely joined with aptus, utilis, 
idoneus, natus, where we should expect the Dative (860), or ad with the 



1123-1129] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 275 

accusative : fruges comumere ndli y " born to eat up fruits ; " apta veterls 
mutare figuras, " capable of changing old shapes." 

1123. — Obs. 4. The Infinitive appears to be used as the ablative 
after dignus,indignus: dignus laudari, "worthy to be praised" (921); and 
also in connection with the ablative of a partieiple in the absolute construc- 
tion. (9*71.) 

1124:.— Obs. 5. The Infinitive is very rarely found governed by 
prepositions : Nil sibi legatum praeter plordre, " Nothing bequeathed 
to him except mourning." — Hor. Inter optime valere el gravissime aegro- 
tare nihil interest, " Between the soundest health and the severest sickness 
there is no difference." — Cic. 

1125* — Obs. 6. The Infinitive sometimes has ipsum agreeing with it, 
and, rarely, other adjective pronouns: Cum vlvere ipsum turpe sit nobis, 
" Since life itself is dishonorable to me." — Cic. Meum intelligere nulla 
pecunia vendo, " I sell my intelligence at no price." — Petron. 



TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

1126. — The Infinitive has three tenses : the Pres- 
ent (better called the Imperfect), the Perfect, and 

the Future. They represent, respectively, their action 
as unfinished, finished, or to be expected, at the time de- 
noted by the principal verb. 

1127. — The Present {Imperfect) Infinitive describes an action as 
going on at the time of the principal verb : 

Intelligis me vigilare, You know that I am watching. 

Intellexistl me vigilare, You knew that I was watching. 

Intelliges me vigilare, You will know that I am watching. 

1128. — The Perfect Infinitive describes an action as finished at 

the time of the principal verb : 

JDlco te venisse, I assert that you came. 

Dixl te ve?iisse, I asserted that you had come. 

Dicam te venisse, I shall assert that you came. 

1129. — The Future Infinitive describes an action as future, or to 
be expected, at the time of the principal verb : 

Credo te venturum esse, I believe that you will come. 

Credidi te venturum esse, I believed that you would come. 

Credam te vent arum esse, I shall believe that you will come. 



276 SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. [1130-1135 

1130. — Obs. 1. It can be seen that the time (tense) of the principal 
verb has nothing to do with the tense of the dependent infinitive, though 
it sometimes causes a change in the English translation of it. 

1131* — Obs. 2. The verb memini, " I remember," in a narrative of 
events, at which the speaker was present, is joined with the Present {Im- 
perfect) Infinitive, though the action remembered is finished : Memini 
Catonem mecum disserere, "I remember that Cato discussed (Cato's discuss- 
ing) with me." But if the sentence is not a narrative, but a statement of a 
result, the perfect infinitive is used: Meministis me distribuisse, "You re- 
member that I divided (in a former part of the speech)." — Cic. 

1132. — Obs. 3. With verbs expressing duty, possibility (ex- 
pressed in English by ought, might, etc.), the existence of the duty or pos- 
sibility in past time, is in Latin properly expressed by putting those verbs 
in past tenses, with the Imperfect Infinitive dependent on them; 
whereas, in English, the Perfect Infinitive is employed, in consequence of 
the insufficient distinctions of tense in such verbs : possum (debeo) Ire, u I 
am able (I ought) to go ; " potul (debui) Ire, u I might (I ought to) have 
gone," lit. " I was able (I was bound) to go." 

1133. — Obs. 4. Those verbs which have no third stem (no 
supine) can have no Future Infinitive. The want of it is supplied by 
futurum esse, or fore, with ut and the subjunctive : Spero fore ut mede- 
dris, "I hope that you will cure." The same circumlocution is also some- 
times employed in cases where the regular Future Infinitive might be 
formed : Nunquam puiavl fore ut supplex ad te venirem, " I never thought 
it would happen that I should come to you as a suppliant " (for me supplicem 
venturum esse). (1362.) 

1134:. — Obs. 5. Pore is sometimes used in connection with the per- 
fect participle (passive or deponent) making a Future Perfect Infini- 
tive: Dico me satis adeptum fore, "I say that I shall have obtained 
enough." — Cic. 



SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

1133. — When a sentence containing an assertion is to be used as the 
object or subject of a verb (i. e., nominally, 1064), the verb in the 
assertion is changed into the infinitive mood, and its subject into the accu- 
sative case. Thus, tu non ista audivisil, " you have not heard those things," 
is an assertion (Principal, 1063). If I wish to make that assertion either 
the subject of mirum est, " it is wonderful," or the object of miror, " I 
wonder," I must change its subject, tit-, to te, and its verb, audivisti, to 
audlvisse : te non ista audlvisse mirum est, or miror, " it is wonderful (or 
I wonder) that you have not heard those things." Te non ista audlvisse 
form a nominal assertion. 



1138-1139] OMISSION OF THE SUBJECT. 277 

1136.— Kule LXXIX. The subject of the 
infinitive is put in the accusative ; as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

Explanation. — Under this Rule, the infinitive with its subject forms a 
distinct proposition, and is equivalent to the indicative or subjunctive mood 
in English, together with the connective " that." Thus, in the example, te 
valere contains the simple proposition, " You are well." The equivalent 
of the English " that," connecting it as a subordinate clause with the pre- 
ceding verb, is implied in the infinitive form. The English particle " thai? 
may therefore be called the sign of the accusative before the infinitive, 
being used to connect the infinitive clause with the preceding. It may 
often be omitted, however, in translating, as it frequently is in English ; 
thus, aiunt regerr adventare, "they say the king is coming," or, u that the 
king is coming." 

EXCEPTION. 

1137 • — Historical Infinitive. — The verb governing the infin- 
itive is sometimes omitted. Especially is this the case in historical narra- 
tion, when the infinitive follows a nominative case in the sense of the 
Imperfect Indicative, or the aorist ; as, Catilina cum expedltis in prima acie 
versdri, " Catiline with the light troops keep moving in the foremost rank." 
See 641. When thus used, it is sometimes said to be governed by coepit 
or coeperunt understood. Cases occur, however, in which this supplement 
cannot be made ; as, Verum ingenium ejus hand absurdum ; posse facer e 
versus, jocum mover e, etc., " However, her talent was by no means con- 
temptible ; she could make verses, get off a joke, etc." 



1138. — Eule LXXX. Omission of the Sub- 
ject. — Verbs signifying willingness, determination, 
ability, lawfulness, duty, beginning, with their 
contraries, govern the infinitive without a subject 
accusative; as, 

Studeo ex te audire quid sentias, I desire to hear from you what you think. 

1139. — Obs. 1. The infinitive without a subject is used after such 
verbs as cupio, opto, volo, nolo, mcdo /—possum, queo, nequeo, valeo, cdgito, 
conor, tendo, disco, doceo, debeo, etc. By the poets it is used after fuge, 
parce for noli, and sometimes after caveo, fugio, gaudeo, etc. In all such 



278 COMPLEMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. [1140-1146 

cases it expresses an act or state of the subject of the governing verh, 

which is therefore to be regarded as also the subject of the infinitive. 

1140.— Obs. 2. The verbs volo, nolo, malo, cupio, etc., admit also the 
accusative with the infinitive. Thus, "I desire to be merciful," may 
be either cupio esse clemens, or cupio me esse clementem. For the nomina- 
tive, clemens, when the subject of the infinitive is omitted, see 1145. 

1141.— Obs. 3. If the subject is indefinite and general it is 

not expressed : Facinus est vinclre clvern Romanum, " To bind (i. e., for 
any one to bind) a Roman citizen is a crime." 



COMPLEMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 
1142. — Kule LXXXI. The Complement 

(Predicate noun or adjective), with the infinitive, 
agrees with its subject, or with the word of its 
reference ; as, 

Volo me eruditum esse, ) j d ^ be x ^ 

Volo eruditus esse, ) 

Mihi negligent esse non licuit, It was not permitted me to be careless. 

1143. — Explanation. — In the first of these examples, eruditum is in 
the accusative to agree with me, the expressed subject of the infinitive. 
In the second, eruditus agrees with ego, the understood subject of volo. In 
the third, it agrees with mihi, which is the word of its reference, though 
mihi cannot be regarded as the subject of esse. 

1144. — Obs. 1. This is the usual construction with licet : voblsjam 
licet esse fortunatissimls, " you may now be most fortunate." (For other 
verbs so used see 676.) But sometimes the accusative is used, agreeing 
with the understood subject of esse: Civl Romano licet esse Gaditanum, 
"A citizen of Rome may become a man of Gades." 

1143. — Obs. 2. Of course, when the subject of the infinitive is 
omitted (1138), a complementary noun will be in the nominative to 
agree with the principal subject. Besides the verbs mentioned (1139), 
many passive verbs, of saying, showing, believing, etc., are used in the 
same way: Aristaeus oleae inventor fuisse dlcitur, "Aristaeus is said to 
have been the discoverer of the olive ; " for which we might have had, 
Aristaeum inventorem fuisse dlcitur, "It is said that Aristaeus, etc." 

1146. — Obs. 3. The passive personal construction is quite common 
with video : Videor deceptus esse, " I seem to have been deceived," instead 
of Videtur me esse deceptum, " It seems that I, etc." 



1147-1153] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT, ETC. 279 



INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OR OBJECT. 

1147.— Rule LXXXIL One verb being the 
subject of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

Facile est queri, To complain is easy. 

Mentlri iurpe est, To lie is base. 

1148. — Eule LXXXIII. One verb governs an- 
other, as its object, in the infinitive ; as, 

Cupio discere, I desire to learn. 

114:9. — Explanation. — It does not matter whether the Infinitive 
have or have not a subject. In either case, the Infinitive with its con- 
nected words {subject, object, adverb, complement, etc.), may by these rules 
be made the subject or the object of another verb, in the Nominative or the 
Accusative case. (See 1118.) 

1130. — Obs. 1. The Infinitive as a subject is used — 

(a) With est and its complement : dulce et decorum est pro patrid mor~i, 
" sweet and comely is it to die in our country's cause ; " te venire 
pergrdtum est, " your coming {lit., that you should come) is very 
delightful." 

1151. — {b) With an impersonal verb, or a verb used imperson- 
ally : peccdre neminl licet, u sinning (to sin) is allowed to no man ; " 
senalul placuit Crassum Syriam obiinlre, " Crassus's holding Syria 
pleased the Senate (it pleased the Senate that Crassus should hold 
Syria)." 

1152. — Obs. 2. The Infinitive as an object, is used with such verbs 
as naturally have a thing or a fact, not a person, for their object. 
These are verbs expressing — 

(a) Knowledge, opinion, declaration {verba sentiendi et 

decldrandl :] 
sentlmus cat 



decldrandl :) sclmus te venisse, " we know that you have come ; " 
alere ignem, " we feel that fire is hot ; " promittebat se ven- 



he promised that he would come.'' 

1153. — {b) Wish, desire, command, etc. : sapieutem civem 
me et esse et numerdrl volo, " I wish myself both to be and to be ac- 
counted a wise citizen ; " optat ardre caballus, " the nag would like 
to draw the plough ; " Caesar castra valid munlrl vetuil, " Caesar 
forbade the camp to be fortified with a rampart." 



280 OBSERVATIONS. [1154-1160 

1154. — (c) Satisfaction, surprise, etc. : gaudeo te valere, "I 
am glad that you are well ; " miror te ad me nihil scribere, u I won- 
der at your not writing to me." 

1155. — Obs. 3. If the verbs mentioned inObs. 2 (1152, a) are, used in 
the passive, the Infinitive is retained, and the subject accusative often 
becomes the nominative to the passive, instead of being retained in an im- 
personal construction (1151). Thus : dicunt Caesarem mortuum esse, " they 
say that Caesar is dead," may become dlcitur Caesar mortuus (1145) esse, 
instead of dlcitur Caesarem mortuum esse. 

1156 — Obs. 4. It is clear that it is only the verbs in 1152 (Obs. 2. a) 
which have in a strict sense an assertion for their object, and therefore* 
that it is only with them that what were called (1064) nominal asser- 
tions can be used. But since all the verbs referred to in 1150-1154 may 
have for their subject or object an Infinitive mood with an accusative case 
for its subject, and this is the form of a nominal assertion (1135), it will be 
found convenient to give the name nominal assertion to all such 
combinations of an accusative tvith an infinitive, whether they 
are in strictness assertions or not. 

1157. — Obs. 5. Certain phrases equivalent to a verb may have a 
similar object : fdma est Gallos advenidre, u there is a report that the Gauls 



1158. — Obs. 6. When a relative clause has the same verb as the 
proposition with the infinitive on which the relative clause depends, but 
without the repetition of the verb, the subject of the verb in the relative 
clause is put by attraction in the accusative ; as, Platonem ferunt idem sen- 
sisse quod Pythagoram, " They say that Plato thought as Pythagoras did." 
But, if the verb of the relative clause is expressed, its subject must be in 
the nominative; as, Platonem ferunt .... idem sensisse quod Pythagoras 
sensit. 

The same analogy is observed with the conjunction quam after a com- 
parative. 899, 1st and 2d. 

Obs. 7. Several of the verbs referred to in 1152-4 take the subjunctive 
or the indicative with various sabj unctions. (495.) These cases will be 
mentioned further on. See 1203-4, 1222-3, 1230-3, 1258 

1150. — Obs. 8. An Infinitive Sentence (nominal assertion) is often 
used in exclamations, being the object or subject of a verb under- 
stood : mine incepto desistere victam (sc. credendum est, " can it be supposed) 
that I should be overcome and give up the design ? " at te non Romae fore 
(sc. quantum doleo, " how I grieve) that you are not going to be at Rome." 

1160. — Obs. 9. The poets, and later prose writers, even Livy, 
sometimes use the Infinitive to express purpose : pecus egit altos visere 
monies, " he drove his flock to visit the lofty mountains," Hon. ; legati 
veniunt specularly " ambassadors come to spy out." — Liv. 



1161-1163] THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 281 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

1161. — The Subjunctive Mood is used when 
the writer wishes to represent that he is not stat- 
ing a fact, bnt a thought or conception. See 

1078. 

All the uses of the Subjunctive may be ultimately referred to this fun- 
damental distinction. Its name implies that it is generally employed in 
sentences which are subjoined, as dependent clauses, to other sentences 
which stand independently ; i. e., to Primary sentences. And even in those 
cases where it appears to stand alone (except in some kinds of hypothetical 
sentences), it is probably to be explained by understanding some antecedent 
clause to which it may be considered to be attached. 



TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

1162. — The Subjunctive Mood has four tenses, two for incom- 
plete action (Imperfect tenses), and two for complete action (Perfect 
tenses), these having reference to present and past time respectively. Thus 
we have : 

(1) For incomplete action, the Present (Present Imperfect) : scrlbam. 

the Imperfect (Bast Imperfect) : scrlberem. 

(2) For complete action, the Perfect (Present Perfect) : scripserim. 

the Pluperfect (Past Perfect) : scripsissem. 

1163. — The particular tense of the subjunctive to be employed in 
each case is determined by the tense of the principal verb with which it is 
connected. In this point of view, the tenses of the Indicative 
Mood are arranged in two classes. 

I. Tenses not Past : i. <?., those which speak of a fact as present 
or future. These are often called Principal tenses. They are : the 
Present (Present Imperfect), the Perfect Definite (Present 
Perfect), the Future, and the Future Perfect. 

II. Tenses Past : i. e., those which speak of a fact as past. These 
are often called Historical tenses. They are : the Imperfect (Past 
Imperfect), the Perfect Indefinite (Aorist\ and the Pluperfect 
(Past Perfect). 

Accordingly, we have the following Rule for 



282 



EXAMPLES. 



[1164-1170 



The Sequence of Tenses. 

1164. — Kule LXXXIV. Tenses not Past 
are followed by Present Tenses of the Subjunc- 
tive. Tenses Past are followed by Past Tenses 
of the Subjunctive. 



1165. 

Audio 



j quid agas, 
( quid egeris, 



8*. 



Audwi 
(Pres.-Perf.) "} quid egeris, 

Audiam 



j quid agas, 
['.) } quid egerii 

j quid agas. 



EXAMPLES. 



I hear 



I have heard 



Audivero 



quid egeris, 



j quid agas. 



quid egeris, 



I shall hear 



I shall have heard 



j what you are doing. Imperf. 

\ what you have done. Per/. 

j what you are doing. Imperf. 

\ what you have done. Per/. 

S what you are doing. Imperf. 

\ what you have done. Perf. 

S what you do. Imperf. 

\ what you have done. Perf. 



1160. 

Audiebam 

go 2 Audim 
(Aorist) 



«* 



Audiveram 



j quid agerts, T h d 
\ quid egisses, L neara 
j quid agerU, t h d 
\ quid egisses, L neam 
\guid ageres, lhah d 
\ quid egisses, 



j what you were doing. Imperf. 
\ what you had done. Perf. 
S what you were doing. Imperf. 
[ what you had done. Perf. 
( what you were doing. Imperf. 
"j what you had done. Perf. 



1167.— Obs. 1. The Historical Present (1082) being inform 
a Tense not Past, but in sense a Tense Past, is sometimes followed by a 
Present, and sometimes by a Past tense of the Subjunctive. A Past tense 
is, however, the more usual: Princeps Gallos hortdtur, ut arrna capiaut, 
" The chief urges the Gauls that they take up arms." — Caes. Servls suis 
imperat Rubrius, ut jdnuam clauderent, " Rubrius ordered (lie. orders) his 
slaves that they should shut the gate." — Cic. 

1168. — Obs. 2. The Present Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes 
used as an A.orist Subjunctive after a Tense Past of the Indicative, when 
the subordinate clause is conceived simply as a distinct historical state- 
ment: Tarn pardtus fait hostium animus ad dimicandum ut ad galeds 
induendds tempw defuerit, " So ready was the spirit, of the enemy for fight- 
ing, that time was wanting for putting on the helmets." — Caes. 

1160. — Obs. 3. Sometimes a Tense Past in the Primary sentence 
is followed by a Present of the Subjunctive, if the result of a past action 
extends to the present time : Adeo excellebat abstinentia Aristides ut unus 
post hominum memoriam Justus sit appellatus, " So much did Aristides 
excel in self-control, he alone within the memory of man has (up to the 
present time) been called the Just." — Nep. 



1170. — Obs. 4. When the Past Imperfect Subjunctive is used 
in the third form of the Hypothetical Period (1267), it is really present in 
sense, and may, therefore, be followed by a Present tense: Memordre 



1171-1174] USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 283 

possem quibus in locls mazimds capias populus Romdnus fuderit, " I could 
now tell (if I chose) in what places the lioman people routed the largest 
forces." — Sall. But even in these cases the general rule is usually ob- 
served. 

117 l»—Obs. 5. Sometimes the Perfect Indicative, when we must 
regard and translate it as a Present Perfect, is followed by a Past Subjunc- 
tive, as if it were the Aorist: Hoc animo semper fui, ut invidiam virtute 
partam gloriam putarem, " I have always been of such a mind as to con- 
sider odium gained by manly conduct to be glory." — Cic. 

1172. — Obs. 6. The Subjunctive Mood has no Future of its own. 
When such a tense is needed it is supplied by the Periphrastic Conjuga- 
tion (328), with sim or essem, according to the general rule : Et quisquam 
dubildbit, quid virtute perfecturus sit, " And will any one doubt, what he 
is likely to accomplish by virtue?" — Cic. Rescripsi quam mihi grcdnm 
essei facturus, '-* I wrote in answer how much pleasure he would do me." — 
Cic. If the Future Subjunctive Passive is required, we must use futurum 
sit (esset) ut. 

117 S* — Obs. V. If a Subjunctive Mood is attached to an Infinitive 
clause, its tense will, of course, be governed by that of the verb on which 
the Infinitive depends, since the Infinitive has no time of its own. (112G.) 



VAKIOUS USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The Subjunctive 3Iood, expressing the action of the Verb as a 

Conception and not as a Fact, is employed in various ways according to 

the nature of the conception implied by it. Most of these occur only in 

1 secondary (dependent) sentences ; but there are some cases, as will be seen, 

in which it is used in Principal Assertions, Questions, and Commands. 

1174:* — A. The Subjunctive Mood, then, is used in the stater 
ment of all conceptions which imply— 

I. A Possibility {Potential Subjunctive)-, as, liaec sint falsa 

sane, " these statements may certainly be false." 

II. A Doubt {Deliberative Subjunctive) ; as, quid facerem, 

" what was I to do ? " 

III. A Desire {Optative Subjunctive)-, as, stct hacc urbs 

praeddra, " may this famous city stand firm." 
IY. A Purpose {Final Subjunctive), as, edhnus ut vivamus, 

" we eat that we may live." 
V. A Consequence {Consecutive Subjunctive)-, as, tantm 

erat iimor omnium, ut nemo arbe excederet, " so great was the 

terror of all, that no man left the city," 



284 CONCEPTIONS OF POSSIBILITY. [1175-1179 

1175.— -B. The Subjunctive Mood is used in the statement of 
some conceptions which imply — 

I. Time ( Temporal Subjunctive) ; as, Antigonus, quum adver- 

sus Seleucum dlmicaret, occisus est, " Antigonus, while he was fight- 
ing against Seleucus, was slain." 

II. Cause (Causal Subjunctive) ; as, Quae quum ita sint, hoc 

dico, " Since these things are so, I assert this." 

III. Condition (Conditional Subjunctive); as, Manent in- 

genia senibus, modo permaneat indusiria, "Old men's abilities 
remain to them, if only their industry remains." 

IV. Concession (Concessive Subjunctive); as, lit desint 

vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, " Though strength may fail, yet 
the wish must be commended." 

1176.— C. Besides these uses, the Subjunctive Mood is constantly 
employed in secondary sentences attached to other sentences which 
contain a Subjunctive Mood or an Infinitive. 

This is called the Attracted Subjunctive. 

Note.— It will be seen that the Indicative Mood is often employed in 
sentences similar to those which come under B and C. 



A. I. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCEPTIONS OP 
POSSIBILITY. 

1177.— Rule LXXXV. Potential Subjunc- 
tive. — The Subjunctive Mood is used in Princi- 
pal Assertions to express that a fact is possible, 
as; 

Forsitan quispiam dixerit. Perhaps some man may say. 



117 8. — Explanation. — In this way the Subjunctive is used to state 
with deference or modesty a fact which might be expressed more decidedly 
by the Indicative. The negative in such cases is rie (not non) : Ne sit sane 
summum malum dolor, malum certe est, "Pain may not indeed be the 
greatest evil, but an evil it certainly, is." — Cic. 

1179. — Obs. 1. The Present Perfect Subjunctive is very often 
employed in this sense, particularly in the first person, or in the second or 
third, if the subject be actually or virtually indefinite : Bruti judicium, 
pace tua dixerim, longe aniepono tuo, " The judgment of Brutus, with your 
leave I would say, I far prefer to yours." — Cic. Ne aequaveritis Hanniball 
Philippum, " You would not make out Philip equal to Hannibal." — Liv. 



1180-1185] NOMINAL QUESTIONS. 285 

A. II. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCEPTIONS OF 

DOUBT. 

1180. — Eule LXXXVI Deliberative Sub- 
junctive. — The Subjunctive is used in Principal 
Questions which imply perplexity ; as, 

Quid hoc homine facidtis, What are you to do with this man ? 

1181, — Explanation. — In such questions, which ask what is to be 
done under certain circumstances, it is generally implied that a negative 
answer is looked for; "nothing," or "no." Here again the negative is 
ne : Ne doleam, " Must I not grieve ? " — Cic. 

1182.— Rule LXXXVXI. Nominal Ques- 
tions. — The Subjunctive Mood is used in Ques- 
tions, the matter of which is made the subject or 
object of a verb expressing doubt or uncertainty. 

These may be called Nominal Questions (see 1064), but they 
are generally named Indirect Questions ; as, 



Ipse animus nescit, qudlis sit animus, \ 



The mind itself knows not of what 
nature the mind is. 



1183. — Explanation. — In this case the question as asked (the Prin- 
cipal Question, 1063) would be qudlis est (1101) animus, "of what nature 
is the mind?" The matter or substance of this question is made in the 
example the object of the verb nescit, and is therefore used as a noun. 
(1064.) 

1184:. — Obs. 1. Of course, questions of either kind, Word-questions 
or Fact-questions (1040-1), may be used in this way. If a word- 
question is thus made a nominal one, the same interrogative pronoun or 
interrogative adverb is employed which appears in the direct question, as 
in the above example. So, also : Multae gentes nondum sciunt cur luna 
deficiat, u Many nations are still in ignorance why the moon is eclipsed ; " 
in which case the direct (Principal) question would be, cur luna deficit? 

1185. — Obs. 2. If a Fact-question is made a nominal one, the 
same interrogative participles are used which are employed in asking the 
direct (Principal) question: -ne, num, nonne (1103); but num involves 



288 exceptions. [1186-1190 

then no anticipation of a negative answer (1105): Existit quaestio, num 
quando amlcl novl veteribus sint antepomndt, " A question arises, whether 
at any time new friends are to be preferred to old ones." — Cic. 



are 



1186.— Obs. 3. If Double (Alternative) Fact-questions (1107) 
used nominally, the particles employed are as follows : 



Quaeritur utrum .... an .... an. 

" -ne .... an .... an. 

" (omitted) .... -ne (an) .... -ne. 

" num .... an .... an. 



Oportebit videre, utrum maliiid aliud agdtur aliud simuletur an stultiiia 
an necessittidine an occdsione, " It will be necessary to see whether it is 
from malice that one thing is done, another pretended, or -from folly, or 
from necessity, or from opportunity." Dubitdhant cdpidsne educere an castra 
defendere praestdrei, " They doubted whether it was better to lead out the 
troops or to defend the camp." 

1187* — Obs. 4. Very often necne or annon (or not) is used in the 
second member of a double question, and the interrogative w T ord may be 
omitted in the first : Parihi transierint necne nemo dubitat, " No one doubts 
whether the Parthians have crossed or not." 

1188. — Obs. 5. The particle an is used in some single nominal 
questions, especially after hand scio, nescio, dubito, inccrtum est. It is gen- 
erally then implied that an affirmative answer is expected; and, therefore, 
such expressions are nearly equivalent to u I almost think : " Dubito an 
Venusiam tendam y " I am half inclined to direct my course to Venusia." 



EXCEPTIONS. 

1189. — Exc. 1. The Indicative Mood is used after such expres- 
sions as nescio quis, nescio quomodo, in which the interrogative pro- 
noun or adverb has come to be so closely connected with nescio that the 
phrases are equivalent to indefinite pronouns or adverbs, and the questions 
are regarded as principal (direct) instead of nominal (indirect) : Nescio 
quomodo, dum lego, assentior, quum posui librum, assensio omnis eldbitur, 
" Somehow (I know not how), while I read, I assent, when I have laid down 
the book, all that agreement slips away," Cic. ; where if nescio were re-, 
garded as a governing verb, we should have had assentiar, elabdtur. 

1100. — Obs. 1. Similarly, the Indicative is employed after such ex- 
pressions as mirum quantum, immdne quantum: Id mirum quantum 
profuit, " This was of wonderful advantage, (lit. it is wonderful how much 
this profited.") — Liv. 

Exc. 2. The Indicative in other nominal (indirect) questions is often 
found in Plautus and Terence, and sometimes in the later poets : Plus 
scis quid opus facto est (for sit), " You know better what must be done." 
—Ter. 



1191-1197] DESIRE OR COMMAND. 237 

1101* — Obs. 2. In the few cases in which the Indicative is 

apparently used in prose writers, either the question must be regarded 
as principal (direct), being independent of the verb ; as, dic y quaeso, num 
t& ilia terrent, " Tell me, I pray, do (not whether) these things frighten you ? " 
Cic. ; or the introducing particle is not interrogative but relative ; as, 
Quaerdmus, ubi maleficium est, " Let us seek there, where the crime actually 
is," Cic. ; where ubi is a relative adverb, with its antecedent ibi un- 
derstood. 

1102. — Obs. 3. It is, therefore, very important to distinguish between 
the similar forms of relative and interrogative words. Thus, 
quae ta scids scio y means, " I know what it is you know ; " but, quae iu scls 
scio, means, " what you know I know also," "I know those things which 
you know." 

For the Infinitive used in some nominal questions in oratio obliqua f 
see 1296, C. 



A. in. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCEPTIONS OF 
DESIRE OR COMMAND. 

1193. — Exile LXXXVIII. Optative Subjunc- 
tive. — The Subjunctive Mood is used in Principal 
sentences, to express a fact as desired ; as, 

rr , . - - - . , 7 -,- { May my fellow-citizens prosper, may 

Valeant ewes mei, sint beah, -j ^ ^ happy# f f > j 

1104:. — Explanation. — The Subjunctive Mood, thus used optatively, 
may be supposed to be governed by some such word as opto, " I desire," 
| understood, with or without ut, " that." 

110 5. — Obs. 1. The optative subjunctive is often accompanied by uti- 
nam: utinam tarn facile vera invenire possim, quam falsa convincere, "would 
that I could as easily prove what is true as refute what is false." — Cic. 

1106. — Obs. 2. The Present tenses of the optative subjunctive 
suggest that a wish is attainable ; the Past tenses, that it is unattain- 

i able : utinam modo conata efficere possim, " that I may only be able to 
accomplish my aims," Cic. ; utinam cum Caesare societdtem nunquam colsses 

, aut nunquam diremisses, " would that you had never entered into a league 
with Caesar, or else had never broken it off." — Id. 



1107. — Obs. 3. The First Person Plural of the Present 

tenses is used to express mutual encouragement : tenedmus eum cursitm, 
"let us held on that course,'' Cic; meminerimus etiam adversus infimos 
justitiam esse servandam, " let us remember that even towards the most 
helpless, justice must be maintained." — Id. 



288 NOMINAL COMMANDS. [1198-1204 

1198c — Obs. 4. It is this use of the Subjunctive which explains its 
employment in place of the Imperative (1114), and therefore the nega- 
tive almost always employed is ne ; ne funestam hanc piignam morte con- 
sidis feceris, " do not make this battle ruinous by the death of the consul." 
— Liv. But non is sometimes found if great stress is required in the nega> 
tive, or if the negative belongs to a single word : a legibus non receddmus, 
" we must not abandon the laws." — Cic. 

1190* — Obs. 5. The optative subjunctive is often used in assever- 
ations, imprecations, etc. : ne sim salvus, si aliter scribo ox sentio, " may 
I be ruined if I write otherwise than as I think," Cic. ; often with ita : ita 
vlvam ut maximos sumptus facio, " so may I live (i. e., may I live only on 
this condition) as I am making the greatest expenditure." — Cic. 



1200.— Rule LXXXIX. Nominal Com- 
mands. — The Subjunctive Mood is used in com- 
mands, the matter of wliich is made the subject 
or object of a verb. (See 1064.) 

Ad Idas Apriles reverterentur {imperdvit), " (He ordered that) they 
should return by the 13th of April." 

1201. — Explanation. — In this case the Principal (direct) command 
would be ad Id. Apr. revertiminl. When the matter of this is made the 
object of imperdvit, expressed or understood, revertiminl becomes reverte- 
rerdnr, and ut, " that," may be either expressed or omitted. The past 
tense is used by Rule LXXXIV. (1164), because the governing verb, im- 
perdvit, is in a Tense Past, and not in consequence of the observation 
in 1193. 

1202. — Obs. 1. The Subjunctive in Nominal Commands occurs very 
frequently in ordtio obllgua (1296, D). In this case the governing verb 
expressive of the command is often omitted, being implied by the principal 
verb, which introduces the whole speech. Thus, in the above example, the 
verb imperdvit does not occur in the passage in Caesar, but is implied in 
respondit, " he answered," which introduces all that Caesar said. 

1203. — Obs. 2. Most verbs expressing command are followed, ac- 
cording to this rule, by the subjunctive introduced by ut or ne ; but ut is 
often understood. Jubeo, however, generally takes the infinitive, and 
impero, also, the infinitive passive, and the thing commanded then takes 
the form of a nominal assertion (1135): Caesar pontem rescindi jubet, 
" Caesar orders the bridge to be torn down ; " non hunc in vincula duel 
imperdbis, " will you not command this man to be led into prison ? " 

1204: — Obs. 3. Other verbs expressing desire, permission, com- 
mand, prohibition, often take an infinitive, such as cupio, volo, nolo, 



1205-1207] conceptions of a purpose. 289 

malo, patior, sino, prohibeo, veto : cupimus te tua virtute frui, " we 
desire that you may enjoy your virtue," Cic. ; vinum ad se importdri sinunt, 
" they allow wine to be imported among them,' 7 Caes. ; Bibulum exlre domo 
prohibent, " they forbid Bibulus to leave his house." — Cic. But all of them 
may take the subjunctive with ut expressed or understood. 



A. IV. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCEPTIONS 
OF A PURPOSE. 

1205.— Rule XC. Final Subjunctive.— The 

Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences which 
express Purpose ; as, 

Nonnulll remanebant ut timoris sus- Some stayed, in order that they might 
picionem vitarent, avoid the suspicion of fear. 

1206. — Explanation. — Final Sentences are always second- 
ary, i. e. y are always attached to some other sentence, without which they 
would have no meaning, while it could perfectly well stand by itself. Thus 
in the example, nonnidll remanlbant, " some remained behind," is entirely 
independent and self-sustaining ; i. e., it is primary. But ut timoris sus- 
picionem vitarent, " that they might avoid the suspicion of fear," has no 
meaning except in connection with the previous sentence, of which action 
it tells the purpose or motive. 

1207 • — Filial sentences are, therefore (1072), of two kinds — 

(a) Adverbial, introduced by (1) ut, in order that. 

(2) ne, in order that — not, lest. 

(3) quo } whereby, in order that. 

(b) Adjectival, introduced by (4) the relative pronoun qui. 

Additional examples : 

C Romulus opened a sanctuary, that he 

(1) Romulus ut civiwn numerum ) . ht increase the number of the 

augeret asylum patejecit, J c iti ze ns. 

. ... ., _ ; He determined to besiege the town, 

(2) Oppidum oppugnare instituit ne ) that he . ht nQt leaye any en 

quern post se hostem relinqueret, j in his rear ° 



(3) Corrupisse dicitur Cluentius ju- 
dicium pecunia, quo inimicum^ 
suum innocentem condemnaret, 

13 



Cluentius is said to have corrupted 
the judges by bribes, whereby 
(that) he might secure the con- 
demnation of his guiltless friend. 



290 FINAL SENTENCES. [1208-1215 

,.* -r-r .,_ ....... ( He sent horsemen before him, who 

(4) Equites praemisit, qui iter ex- \ (that ^ m[ht) ^^ 

plorarent, ] ^ ^ 

1208o — 06s. 1. The notions of Desire and of Purpose are so closely 
allied, that it is of little importance whether the subjunctive with ut or ne, af- 
ter verbs of desire, exhortation, persuasion (such as opto, volo, " I 
wish ; " hortor, " I exhort ; " censeo, statuo, decerno, " I determine," etc.), be 
ranged under this rule or the preceding. Te hortor ut has libros studiose leg as , 
" I urge you to read (that you read) these books with care," Cic. ; precor ne 
me deseras, " I pray you not to (that you may not) desert me." — Id. 

1209 '. — Obs. 2. The examples in Obs. 1 show that Final Sentences 
may often be translated by the English Infinitive* The Latin Infini- 
tive, however, is very rarely so used. See 1160. 

1210.- -Obs. 3. Final Sentences introduced by quo, generally contain 
a comparative : Legem brevem esse oportet, quo facilius ab imperitis 
teneCdur, " A law ought to be short, whereby (in order that) it may the 
more easily be grasped by the unlettered." — Cic. 

1211.— Obs. 4. Rarely ut ne is used instead of ne : Quod ut ne acci- 
dat cavendum est, " We must take heed that this do not happen." — Cic. 

1212* — Obs. 5. Final sentences are introduced by the Helative 
Pronoun qui, especially after verbs of sending, coming, giving, choos- 
ing, and such like : Delegisii quos Romae relinqueres, u You picked out 
whom to leave at Rome," Cic. ; Hominl natura addidit rationem, qua 
regerentur animl cupiditates, " Nature hath given reason to man, that by it 
{lit., by which) the passions of the soul might be governed." — Cic. 

1213.— Obs. §. The Helative Adverbs, quo, "whither," unde, 
" whence," etc., are used in the same way as the Relative Pronoun in 
introducing final sentences : Locum destinant quo (= in quern) pretiosissima 
congererent, " They fix upon a place to which (lit. whither) they should bring 
together their most valuable effects." — Liv. 

1214. — Obs. 7. It may be useful to enumerate here together the 
various modes in which purpose may be expressed in Latin. Thus, 
to express " the envoy came to sue for peace," we may use — 

(1.) Ut (ne, quo), with subjunctive : legcttus venit, ut pacem rogaret. 

(2.) Qui, with subjunctive: legatus venit, qui pacem rogaret. 

(3.) Causa, with genitive of gerund or gerundive : legatus venit pacem 

rogandl causa, or pads rogandae causa. (1330.) 
(4.) Ad, with accus. of gerundive : legatus venit ad pacem rogandam. 

(1338.) 
(5.) The future participle active : legatus venit pacem rogaturus. (1355.) 
(6.) The accusative supine : legatus venit pacem rogatum. (1360.) 

12 IS. — Obs. 8. Verbs of fearing (timeo, metuo, vercor, etc.) usu- 
ally have the object of fear expressed by a final sentence, introduced by ut or 



1216-1220] CONCEPTIONS OF A CONSEQUENCE. 291 

fie, the word " fear " being equivalent to " I doubtingly hope." Ut is used 
if the matter feared about be desired, ne if it be not desired. So that in 
these eases ut must be translated by " that — not," and ne by " that." Oni- 
rics laborts te excip>ere video ; timeo ut sustineas, " I see you undertake all 
sorts of labors ; I fear that you will not (i. e., I doubtingly hope that you 
may) endure them." — Cic. Vereor ne, dum minuere vel'un labdrem, augeam, 
u I fear that I may (i. e., I doubtingly hope that I may not) increase your 
labor, while I mean to lessen it." — Cic. 

1210. — Obs. 9. Instead of ut, ne non is often used in these cases: 
Timeo ne non perficiam quod suscepi, " I am afraid that I may not accom- 
plish what I have undertaken." This occurs especially when the primary 



1217* — Obs. 10. When negative indefinite pronouns or 

adverbs (no one., novjhere, never, etc.), occur in final sentences, the negative 
attaches itself in Latin to the introducing particle : ne quis, not ut nemo, 
u in order that no one," etc. See 1225. 



A. V. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCEPTIONS OF A 

CONSEQUENCE. 

1218. — Rule XCI. Consecutive Subjunctive. 

— The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences 
which express a consequence or result ; as, 

Nemo tarn demens est ut sua voluntdte No one is so mad that he will suffer 
maereat, of his own choice. 

1219. — Explanation. — These sentences are always secondary ; and 
though they speak of facts, yet since these facts are conceived as being the 
consequences of other facts, the Subjunctive Mood is employed in them, 
and not the Indicative. 

1220. — Consecutive Sentences are of two kinds : 

(a) Adverbial, introduced by (1) ut, "so that — ." 

(2) ut non, " so that — not — ." 

(3) quin, quSminus, "but that — ." 

(b) Adjectival, introduced by (4) the relative pronoun qui. 

Additional Examples. 

(1) Tarquinius sic Servium dili- Tarquinius loved Servius so much, 
gebat, ut is vulgo habereiur that the latter was currently re- 
filius, garded as his son. 



292 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. [1221-1227 

/ rt \ cr j! j j •- - j--l 4. - ( It often happens that men who are 

(2) Saepe fit ut n gm debeant, no,i \ ^ debt ^ meet the;r 

respondeat ad tempics,^ } merits at the proper time. 

(3) F£# me contineo, quln in ilium I can scarcely restrain myself from 

involem, flying at him. 

(4) Majus gaudium fuit quam quod The joy was too great for men to 

universxvm homines caperent, take in all at once. 

1221, — Obs. 1. Yery often the primary sentence contains an ante- 
cedent term, such as ita, tarn, sic, talis, etc. : Innocentia est affectio 
tcdis animi, quae noceat nemini, " Innocence is that kind of affection of the 
mind which is hurtful to no one." 

1222.— Obs. 2. A Consecutive Sentence often stands as if it 
were the subject of the primary sentence. This is the case when the 
primary sentence consists of an impersonal verb or expression ; such as, 
accidit, coniingit, fit, "it happens;" restat, reliquum est, "it remains;" 
sequilur, proximum est, " it follows ; " etc. : Si haec nuntidlio vera non est, 
sequitur ut falsa sit, u If this proposition is not true, it follows that it is 
false." — Cic. Ita factum est ut hostes non resisterent, "So it came to pass 
that the enemy made no resistance." 

1223. — Obs. 3. A Consecutive Sentence often stands as if it 
were the object of the verb in the primary sentence : Temperaniia efficit 
ut appetltionls rectae rationi pareant, " Temperance causes that the appe- 
tites submit to right reason." — Cic. 

1224=, — Obs. 4, Sometimes a Consecutive Sentence stands as 

an appositive to a noun in the primary sentence : damnatum poenam 
sequl oportebat ut ignl cremaretur, " It was necessary that the punishment 
of being burnt with fire should follow his condemnation {lit. him con- 
demned)." — Caes. 

1225.— Obs. 5. When negative indefinite pronouns or ad- 
verbs {no one, nowhere, etc.) occur in consecutive sentences, the negative 
attaches itself to the indefinite. See 1217. Thus we have : 





Inl 


%nal Sentences* 


In Consecutive Sentences, 


That no one, 
That none, 




ne quis, 
ne ullus, 


ut nemo, 
ut nullus. 


That never, 
That nowhere, 




ne unquam, 
ne usquam, 


ut numquam. 
ut nusquam. 



1226* — Obs. 6. Consecutive sentences introduced by the rela- 
tive pronoun, are used especially after the adjectives dignus, indig- 
nus, idoneus, etc., to denote what one is worthy of, or fit for : Lividnae 
fdbulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur, " The plays of Livius 
are not well worthy of being read a second time." — Cic. 

1227 '.— Obs. 7. A Consecutive sentence with qui is used after 
such verbs as sunt, "there are some;" non desunt, "there are not 
wanting; " reperiuntur, "there are found," when the antecdeent of qui is 



1228-1236] consecutive sentences. 293 

indefinite : Sunt qui discessum animl a corpore putent esse mortem, 
" There are some who think death to be the departure of the soul from the 
body."— Cic. 

1228. — Exc. 1. But in these cases the Indicative Mood is some- 
times used when the fact is made prominent : Sunt bestiae quaedam, in quibus 
inest aliquid simile virtutis, " There are some animals in whom there is some 
principle like virtue. — Cic. Often, too, especially in the poets, sunt qui, est 
qui, etc., are treated like a simple indefinite pronoun (compare 1189), 
and thus take the indicative : Sunt quos juvat, " To some it is a joy." — Hor. 

1229* — Obs. 8. In this way the subjunctive with quod is used after 
est, " there is a reason ; " non habeo, " I have no reason," etc. : Non est 
quod querare, " There is no reason for your complaining." It must be ob- 
served that non habeo quod dlcam, means, " I see no reason for my speak- 
ing ; " but non habeo quid dlcam, means, " I do not know what to say." 
Compare 1192. 

1230* — Obs. 9. Consecutive sentences with quin are used only 
after primary sentences which are actually or virtually negative ; i. e., those 
containing a negative, an interrogative anticipating a negative answer, or 
such words as vix, "scarcely;" parum, "too little," etc. Quin is used — 

1231. — (a.) After negative sentences containing verbs of hinder- 
ing, refusing, etc.: Non possumus recusare, quin alii a 
nobis dissentiant, "We cannot object that others should differ 
from us." — Cic. Hand multum abfuit quin Ismenias interficere- 
*tur, "But little was wanting to Ismenias' being killed," i. e., "A 
little more and he would have been killed." — Liv. 

1232. — (b.) After negative sentences containing expressions of 
doubt, possibility, etc. : Non erat dubium quin HelvUil 
plurimum possent, " There was no doubt that the Helvetii had 
most power." — Caes. 

1233. — (e.) After negative sentences, implying that a result 
always follows: Nidlus fere dies est quin Satrius meam 
domum ventitet, " There is hardly a day that Satrius does not 
keep coming to my house." — Cic. 

1234. — Exc. 2. Sometimes the accusative with the Infinitive is 
used where quin, with the subjunctive might be employed : Quw dubiiat 
pater e Europam ? " Who doubts that Europe is exposed ? " — Curt. 

1235. — Exc. 3. Quin is used with the Indicative in animated 
questions (" why not," = qui ne), and also in expostulations with the Im- 
perative : Quin conscendimus equos ? " Why not to horse at once ? " — Liv. 
Quin tu hoc audi, " Nay, but do you hear me?" — Ter. 

1236. — Obs. 10. Consecutive sentences with quominus (quo 
minus, " whereby the less "), are used, like those with quin, after words and 



294: TEMPORAL SENTENCES. [1237-1241 

phrases signifying hindrance, such as impedio, "I hinder;" per me 
stat, " it is owing to me : " Non recusabo quominus omuls mea scripta 
legant, " I will not object to all men's reading my writings." — Cic. Per 
Afranium stetit, quominus dlmicCirUur, "It was owing to Afranias that 
there was no engagement." — Caes. 



B. I. STATEMENTS OF TIME— TEMPORAL 

SENTENCES. 

1237. — Temporal Secondary Sentences, which state the 
time of the action spoken of in the primary sentence, are introduced by 
quum, quando, ubi, "when;" postquam, "after;" simulac (simul- 
atque), " as soon as ; " ex quo, " since ; " priusquam, antequam, " be- 
fore;" dum, d5nec, quoad, "while," "until;" quamdiu, "as long as;" 
quoties, " as often as." These particles usually take the Indicative, 
but in some special cases some of them take the Subjunctive. 

1238. — Rule XCII. Tlie temporal particles 
dum, donee, quoad, " until," generally take the 
subjunctive if they imply Purpose as well as 
Time; as, 

Differant in aliud tempus dum defer- Let them put it off to another time, 
vescat Ira. till their anger cools down. 



, Q V 



Explanation. — In this example it is implied that the accomplishment 
of the purpose of becoming composed is the limit of the time during 
which the matter should be postponed. 

1230* — Obs. 1. Dum and quoad also mean, "as long as," and they 
then take the Indicative : Ut aegroto, dum anima est, spls esse dicitur, 
sic ego, quoad PompHus in Italia fuit, sperare non destiti, " As there is 
said to be hope for a sick man as long as there is life, so, as long as Pom- 
pey was in Italy, I did not cease to hope." — Cic. 

12dk0. — Obs. 2. In the later writers, donee ("until," "while") some- 
times takes the Subjunctive, even without the notion of Purpose : 
Rltenus servat violentiam curs us donee oceano misceatur, " The Rhine main- 
tains the strength of its stream till it mingles with the ocean." — Tac. 

1241. — Rule XCIII. The temporal particles 
antequam, priusquam, "before," take the sub- 



1242-1246] TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 295 

junctive if they imply Purpose or a general 
truth ; as, 

Priusquam aggredidre, adhibenda Before you make an attempt you should 
est praepardtio dlligens, employ diligent preparation. 

Explanation. — In this example it is implied that careful preparation is 
necessary in order that afterwards you may make an attempt with success. 

124:2. — Obs. 1. The Subjunctive is often used with these particles 
when the connection between the preceding and the following event is very 
general : Tempestds mindtur, antequam surged, " A tempest threatens before 
it rises," Sen. ; " it may threaten without rising, but the threatening is a 
natural antecedent of its rising. 

124:3. — Obs. 2. The Subjunctive of the past tenses espe- 
cially, is often employed after antequam, priusquam, when it is hard to 
see any thing more than a mere note of time : DucentJs annis, antequam 
Romam caper ent, in Italiam Galll transcenderunt, " The Gauls crossed into 
Italy two hundred years before they took Rome." — Liv. 

Obs. 3. The elements of antequam, priusquam, are often sepa- 
rated ; ante, or prius (" sooner ") being placed in the primary sentence, 
and quam (" than ") introducing the secondary sentence : N<m ante firiitum 
est praelium, quam tribunus interfectus est, " The battle was not finished 
(sooner than) before the tribune was slain." — Liv. 

1244. — Eule XCTV. The temporal particle 
quum (cum) is constantly followed in historical 
narrative by the past tenses of the subjunctive ; 

as, 

Antigonus, quum dimicaret, occisus Antigonus, when he was fighting, 

est, was slain. 

Alexander, quum inieremisset Cli- Alexander, when he had slain Clitus, 

turn, vix a se manus abstinuit, hardly kept his hands off himself. 

1245. — Explanation. — In these cases, it can often be seen that the 
secondary sentence states not only the Time but the Cause of the event 
mentioned in the primary. With the Past Imperfect, quum may often be 
best translated " while," and with the Past Perfect, " after." 

1246. — Obs. 1. Quum, with the Past Perfect Subjunctive is con- 
stantly used to supply the place of the wanting Perfect Participle 

of the active voice. Thus, in the second example above, quum iniere- 
misset may be translated " having slain." (1347.) 



296 CAUSAL SENTENCES. [1247-1251 

1247 • — Obs. 2. Sometimes quurn is used with the subjunctive in a 
sort of consecutive sense : Fuit iempus quum rura colerent homines 
neque urbem liaberent, " There was a time when (i. e. such that in it) men 
tilled the fields and had no city." — Vaur. But in a similar sentence, 
Cicero says, Fuit quoddam ternpus quum in agris homines vagabantur, 
" There was a certain time when (in which) men wandered in the fields." 

124:8* — Obs. 3. Quum is used with similar tenses of the In- 
dicative to express absolute identity of time: that the doing of one 
action implies the doing of the other : Praecldre facis quum puerum dlligis, 
" You act nobly in loving the boy," Cic. ; Quum lacent, clamant, " In hold- 
ing their peace, they in effect cry aloud." — Cic. 

1249, — Note. — The Temporal particles postquam, ut, ubi, simulac, 
etc., have commonly the Aorist Indicative (1094), where in English the 
Past Perfect is employed : Pompeius, ut equitaium suum pulsum vidit, acie 
excessit, " Pompey, when he had seen his cavalry beaten, went out of the 
battle." — Caes. But the JPast Perfect may be used if some lapse of 
time has occurred, especially if this is defined : Hannibal anno terlio post- 
quam domo prof ugerat, in Africam venit, " Hannibal came to Africa in the 
third year after he had fled from home." — Nep. 



B. II. STATEMENTS OF CAUSE— CAUSAL 

SENTENCES. 

1250. — Causal Secondary Sentences, which state the 
cause of the action spoken of in the primary sentence, are introduced by 
quod, quia, " because ; " quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, " since ; " 
quum, "since ; " and the relative qui, " who " (in the sense of quum is, 
"since he"). Of these, all but quum and qui are regularly followed by 
the Indicative. 



1251. — Rule XCV. Causal sentences, intro- 
duced by quum or qui, have their verbs in the 
Subjunctive Mood ; as, 

Quum una domo jam capi non pos- ( Since the ? cannot a11 be contained in 

sint in alias domos exeunt, ) one house > the 7 move off ' mto otner 

( houses. 

Magna culpa Pelopis, qui non eru- ( Great was the fault of Pelo P s > wbo 
dierit f ilium, * \ (= since he ) did not inst ™ct his 

( son. 



1252-1258] observations. 297 

1232, — Obs. L Sometimes the writer chooses to represent what is 
really a^ cause rather as an independent fact, and then uses the In- 
dicative : Habeo seneciuti magnam grdtiam, quae rnihi sermonis avidi- 
tdtem auxit, potionis et cibl sustidit, " I am very grateful to old age, which 
(= for it, not since it) has increased my passion for conversation, and taken 
away that for eating and drinking," Cic. ; where auxerit, sustulerit, might 
have been employed. 

-j 

125 S. — Obs. 2. The force of qui in causal sentences is increased by 
the particles quippe, utpote, ut, praesertim : Inde consul, ut qui jam ad 
hostes preventum. cernerei, cum coaclo agmine procedebat, " Thence the consul, 
since he saw he had now come up with the enemy, advanced with compact 
line." — Liv. But quippe qui sometimes takes the Indicative, par- 
ticularly in Livy and Sallust : Animus fortuna non eget, quippe quae pro- 
biidtem neque dare neque Iripere potest, " The soul needs not fortune, since 
she can neither give nor take away goodness." — Sall. 

1254:. — Obs. 8. Quippe is used alone with the Indicative in 
giving an ironical reason : Quipr>e vetor fdtis, " Because, I suppose, I am 
forbidden by the fates," Virg. ; Movet me quippe lumen curiae, " I suppose 
that luminary of the senate-house disturbs me." — Cic. 

1255. — Obs. 4. The other causal particles, quod, quia, etc., may take 
the Subjunctive if the cause is stated on some other authority than 
the writer's : Aristides nonne ob earn causam expvlsus est patrid quod praeter 
modum Justus esset, " Was not Aristides banished for this reason, that 
he was just beyond measure (as his fellow-citizens alleged) ? " — Cic. 

1256. — Obs. 5. If it is implied that a supposed reason is not 

true in fact, the Subjunctive is used with non quod } non quia, non 
quo, non quin, which may be followed by sed quia (quod), with the 
Indicative of the true reason : Pugiles etiarn quum feriunt adversdrium in- 
gemiscunt, non quod doleant animove succumbant, sed quod profundcndd 
voce omne corpus intenditur, " Boxers, even in smiting their opponent, heave 
a groan : not because they are in pain, or are sinking in spirit, but because 
in uttering the sound the whole body is put on the stretch." — Cic. 

1257* — Obs. 6. Sometimes quod is followed by the subjunctive 
of a verb, meaning to say or think, though the object of that verb is really the 
reason, as felt by the subject of the verb : Rediit paulo post, quod se obhtum 
nescio quid dlceret, " He returned a little later, because he had forgotten 
something, as he said {lit., because he said he had forgotten)." 

1258. — Obs. 7. Often quod (with the Indicative or Subjunctive, ac- 
cording to Obs. 4, 1255) is used with those verbs and expressions which 
denote" surprise, satisfaction, etc. (verba affectuum), such as 
gaudeo, juvat, miror, etc. In these cases the accusative with the infinitive 
may be employed. (See 1154.) But the latter mode of expression (the 
form of a nominal assertion, 1135), merely points out the object of the 
feeling : whereas quod implies that the circumstances actually hold or ex- 
ist. Thus : utile est Gdium adesse, merely implies that it is an advantage 

13* 



298 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [1259-1262 

for Gaius to be present, whether he is present or not. But utile est quod 
Gains adest means, it is an advantage that Gaius is present as he is. Mag- 
num heneficium naturae est, quod necesse est mori, " It is a great boon of 
nature that we must die." — Sen. 



B. HI. STATEMENTS OF CONDITION— CONDI- 
TIONAL SENTENCES. 

1259.— A Conditional Secondary Sentence is one which 
states a condition or circumstance under which something else holds true. 
The Secondary clause, which contains the condition, is called the 
Condition (or Protasis), and the Primary clause, which states 
what does or would follow from it, is called the Conclusion (or Apo- 
dosis). The two clauses together form a whole, which is called the Hy- 
pothetical Period. Thus, Si helium omittimus, pace nunquam 
fruemur, " If we give up the war, we shall never enjoy peace," is a hypo- 
thetical period, of which si helium omittimus is the condition, and nunquam 
pace fruemur is the conclusion. 

The condition is most commonly introduced by si, " if," nisi (nl), " if 
not, unless ; " sometimes by dum, dummodo, modo, " provided that." 

1260. — The Hypothetical Period always asserts the connec- 
tion of the conclusion with the condition. But as the speaker may or may 
not, beside this, wish to make some suggestion about the truth or proba- 
bility or falsehood of the condition he assumes, we find that in Latin there 
are three main kinds of the Hypothetical Period, each with some pe- 
culiarity of form and meaning. 



Hypothetical Period— First Form, 

1261. — Rule XCVI. When the Indicative 

occurs in both clauses, nothing more is implied 
than that the conclusion depends on the con- 
dition : 

Si sunt arae, sunt etiamnumina, [*£%£££ ^^ there ^ alS ° 

1262. — Explanation. — The Indicative Mood being used in 
both clauses, it is possible that they may he real ; but nothing is sug- 
gested further as to the likelihood of their proving so. So : Err as si id 



1263-1267] HYPOTHETICAL PEEIOD. 299 

credis, " You are mistaken if you believe that."— Ter. PerficiUur helium, 
si urglmus obsessos, " The war will be finished if we press the besieged." — 
Liv. In these cases the speaker merely tells the circumstances under 
which a particular conclusion will follow, but does not hint what his 
opinion is as to the probability of the conclusion being actually reached. 

1263. — Obs. 1. Often in this form the conclusion contains an Im- 
perative Mood, or the Subjunctive used in an optative or poten- 
tial sense (1177, 11*93): Si quicquam invenies me mentlhmi, occldito, a If 
you find that I have told any lie, kill me," Ter. ; Si sciens folio, turn me 
pessimo letd officio's, " If I knowingly deceive, then mayst thou visit me with 
the worst death." — Lit. 

1204:. — Obs. 2. Sometimes si is omitted in the condition of this 
and of the other forms of the hypothetical period : Negat quis, nego ; ait, 
aio, " (If) a man says no, I say no ; (if) he says yes, I say yes." — Ter. 



Hypothetical Period— Second Form. 

1265.— Rule XCVK When the Present 
Tenses of the Subjunctive are used in both 
clauses, it is implied that the speaker knows that 
the supposition is a mere conception or imaginary 
case, which may probably never be realized. 

Se negem, mentiar, If I were to deny it, I should tell an untruth. 

1266. — Explanation. — In this form the Subjunctive Mood is used, 
since the condition is presented as a mere conception. But the tenses 
being present, it is possible that the condition, and therefore the conclusion 
which depends on it, may yet be realized. Dies deficiat, si velim tnume- 
rdre, " The day would fail, if I should choose to enumerate ; " Si seicris 
aspidem occulte latere uspiam, improbe feceris nisi monueris alter um ne as- 
sideat, " If you should have become aware that an asp were lying concealed 
in some place, you would be acting wrongly if you did not warn your neigh- 
bor not to sit there." — Cic. 

Hypothetical Period— Third Form. 

1267. — Rule XCVIII. When the Past Tenses 
of the Subjunctive are used in both clauses, it is 



300 HYPOTHETICAL PERIOD. [1268-1272 

implied that the speaker knows, or believes, that 
the supposition is a mere conception which can- 
not now be realized. 

Necassem jam te mrberibus, nisi ird- I would have beaten you to death, 
tus essem, if I had not been angry. 

1268.— Explanation. — The past tenses subjunctive in the 

Hypothetical Period (both perfect and imperfect), allude to past time, or at 
any rate to an obstacle in past time affecting the present state of things. 
In either case, it is now too late to alter matters, and therefore these tenses 
generally imply not only the non-existence of a state of things, but also 
impossibility. The Past Imperfect implies non-existence at the present 
time, and the Past Perfect, non-existence at a past time. Thus : Sapientia 
non expeterMur, si nihil efficeret, " Wisdom would not be sought after (as it 
is), if it produced no result (but it does produce results) ; " Deleius exercitus 
foret, ni fugientes silvae texissent, "The army would have been destroyed 
(which it was not\ unless the woods had sheltered the fugitives (as they 
did)." 

1269. — Obs. 1. The forms in which the Hypothetical Period usually 
appears are those given in the three preceding rules. But we sometimes 
find mixed forms, in which the Condition and Conclusion do not an- 
swer to each other so strictly as in the examples given. Thus we find— 

1270. — (a) In the Third Form, the Past Imperfect in the 

Condition, and the Past Perfect in the Conclusion, or vice versd, 
in which cases the tenses retain their strict meaning : Si has invmi- 
citids cavere potuisset, vivcret, " If he had (then) been able to guard 
against these enmities (as he ivas ?iot), he would now be alive (as he 
is not)" Cic. ; Si hoc optimum facta judicarem, unlus usuram horae 
isti gladiator l ad vlvendum non dedissem, "If I had judged (as I did 
not and do not) this the best thing to do, I would not have granted 
(as I did) to that gladiator the enjoyment of a single hour for life." 
— Cic. 

127 1* — (&) The Condition of the Second Form joined with 
the Conclusion of the First Form : Quae si rejiciamus, ilia 
quoque, unde haec nata sunt, rejiciemus, "if we reject these things, 
we shall reject those, also, from which these are derived ; " Neque 
amlcitiam tuerl possumus, nisi aeque arnicas et nosmet ipsos dlligd- 
mus, " Nor can we maintain friendship, unless we love our friends as 
ourselves." 

1272.— (c) The Condition of the Third Form with the 
Conclusion of the First Form. This case is generally on! v 
an apparent exception, the true conclusion being understood. This 
is the case: — 



1273-1280] HYPOTHETICAL PERIOD. 301 

y 

1273.— -(1) When the conclusion contains one of the Indicative tenses 
of the periphrastic conjugations (328, 329) : Si me tri- 
umphare prohiberent, testes citatarus ful rerum a me gestarum, 
" If they had attempted to prevent my triumphing, I should have 
called up (i. e., I was intending to call up, and should have done 
so) witnesses of my achievements." — Liv. Si prlvatus esset, tamen 
adtantumbellumis erat deligendus, "If he had been in a private 
station, still he was the man who ought to have been selected for 
such a war." — Cic. 

1274:. — (2) When the conclusion contains a verb of duty, power, 
etc. (debeo, possum) : Hunc patris loco, si vlla in te pieihs esset, colere 
debebas, " This man you were bound to respect as a father (and would 
have done so) if there had been any dutiful feeling in you." — Cic. 

1275* — (3) When the conclusion contains the verb "to be" with 
such adjectives as longum, rectum, aequum, satis, etc. : Longum 
est, si tibi narrem, " It is long (or would be so) if I were to tell." 
—Tee. 

1276. — (4) With other verbs, especially if accompanied by such 
adverbs as paene, prope, almost : Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ril 
unus vir fuisset, "The bridge all but offered a passage to the enemy 
(and would have done so completely), had it not been for one man." 
— Liv. This construction is very common in Tacitus : Quod ni pro- 
per e per no tuisset, hand multum ab exiiio legctti aberant, " And if this 
had not speedily become known (they would have put an end to the 
officer, for even as it was) they were not far from doing so." 

1277. — Obs. 2. The conclusion of the Second or Third form 
is omitted when the condition has ac si, quasi, velut si, ceu, " as if," " as 
it were " : Sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, 
"But why do I resort to these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter 
were doubtful or obscure ? " 

1278. — Obs. 3. The condition of the Second or Third form 
is sometimes omitted: Canes venaticos diceres, "You would have said 
they were hounds (if you had not known the contrary)." 2 y u velim ad me 
venias, " I should like you to come to me (if you can)." 

1279. — Obs. 4. The particle si is sometimes omitted: Roges m~e, 
nihil for tasse respondeam, " (If ') you should ask me, I should, perhaps, 
make no answer." Partem opere in tantd, sineret dolor, Icare kaberes, 
" Some place in this great work, Icarus, had grief permitted, thou wouldst 
have had."— Virg. See 1264. 

Obs. 5. For the changes in the Hypothetical Period, when it stands as 
object or subject of a verb (i. e., is used nominally), see 1304. 

1280. — Obs. 6. The Helalive Pronoun qui is sometimes found 
introducing sentences apparently conditional : Haec qui videat, nonnc cogd- 



802 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES. [1281-1283 

tur confiteri deos esse~ u Would not a man who should see these things (i. e., 
if he should see), be constrained to confess that there are gods ? " Epicu- 
rus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem profiUri est aicsus, " Epicurus was the 
only man, so far as I know (i. e., if I know this point), who presumed to 
profess himself a wise man." 



B. IV. STATEMENTS OF CONCESSION— CON- 
CESSIVE SENTENCES. 

12 81 •—Concessive Secondary Sentences are those in 
which a point is admitted or granted. Accordingly, they are closely con- 
nected in sense with the Hypothetical Period ; and some of the particles 
introducing them are merely compounds of si: etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, 
" although." These are governed by the same rules as to mood and tense 
as the different forms of the Hypothetical Period. Thus : Homo, quod 
webro videt, non mirdtur, etiamsi, cur fiat, nescit, " A man does not 
wonder at what he sees constantly, though he knows not why it happens." 
— Cic. Rectum est in contentionibus, etiamsi nobis indigna audidmus, 
tamen gravitdtem retinere, "It is right in disputes, though we may hear 
things unworthy of us, still to retain our dignity." — Cic. Etiamsi in nos 
non is esset, qui est, tamen ornandus viderctur, " Although he were not to 
me what he is, yet he would seem to deserve to be complimented." — Cic. 

1282. — Rule XCIX. Concessive sentences 
take the subjunctive if they are introduced by 
licet, quamvis, ut, ne, quum, " although ; '- as, 

Vita brevis est, licet supra mille annos Life is short, though it may extend 
exeat, beyond a thousand years. 

1283. — Explanation. — Of these so-called Conjunctions, licet is 
really an impersonal verb (454) "it is allowed," and is followed by the 
Final Subjunctive without ut. Quamvis (or more rarely quantumvis) 
means " as much as you please," and the subjunctive following it is really 
Potential : quamvis ille felix sit, " though he be fortunate," i. e., "let 
him be as fortunate as you please." Ut and ne are to be explained by 
understanding fac or sine, " suppose " or " allow : " Ut quaerus omnia, 
non reperies, u Though (grant that) you examine all things, you will not 
find."— Cic. Quum, as a Concessive particle, is nearly allied to quum, 
Cansal 9 as indicating a logical connection between the clauses : Phaeton 
fait perpetuo pauper quum dltissimus esse posset, " Phocion was always 
poor, though he had it in his power to be very rich." — Nep. 



1284-1291] ATTRACTED SUBJUNCTIVE. 303 

1284:. — Rule C. Concessive sentences intro- 
duced by quamquam generally have the indica- 
tive; as, 

Quamquam festlnas, non est mora Though you are in haste, the delay is 
longa, not long. 

1285. — Obs. 1. Quamquam is, in the later writers, particularly 
Tacitus, constantly used with the Subjunctive. This occurs also in 
Cicero, where the concession is made in reference to the judgment of 
another : Quamquam sint in quibusdam mails, " Although they are (as you 
assume) in some evils." 

1286. — Obs. 2. Quamvis, in the later writers (Tacitus) and the 
poets, is often found with the Indicative, having thus lost its etymological 
meaning : Quamvis solus avem coelo dejecit ab alto, " Though he alone 
brought down the bird from the high heaven." — Virg. 

1287* — Obs. 3. Sometimes quamvis is joined with licet, with the 
Subjunctive : Quamvis licet viriidl delubra consecremus, " Although we may 
consecrate fanes to virtue." 

1288. — Obs. 4. Often quamquam (more rarely etsl) is used in 
Primary sentences, meaning " and yet," Greek mirca : quamquam quid 
loquor, " And yet why do I speak ? " — Cic. 

1289. — Obs. 5. Quamquam, quamvis, and etsi, are sometimes 
used with adjectives or participles : quamquam haud dissimulans, 
" Although not disguising." — Suet. Quamvis is also used with an inten- 
sive force with adverbs : Sluliitiam accusare quamvis copiose licet, " You 
may revile folly as copiously as yon please." 

1290. — Obs. 6. Occasionally the Melative Pronoun qui is 

used in a concessive sense with the Subjunctive, being then equivalent to 
licet is {ego, etc.): Saepe vidimus fr acids pudore qui raiione nulla vinceven- 
tur, " We often see men overcome by shame, though they were moved by 
no reason." Tit aquam a pumice poslultis, qui ipse sitiat, "You demand 
water from a pumice stone, though it is itself parched with thirst." 



C. ATTRACTED SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1291. — Rule CI. Attracted Subjunctive. — 

The Subjunctive Mood is used in secondary sen- 
tences which are attached, as an essential part of 



304 REPORTED SPEECH. [1292-1295 

the thought, to sentences containing the Subjunc- 
tive? or to the construction of the accusative with 
the Infinitive (nominal assertions) ; as, 

Quisfidem habeatei, qui amicos suds Who can put faith in a man who ha9 
deceperit, deceived his own friends ? 

Non credo eum y qui sapiens sit, raise- I do not believe that he, who is wise, 
rum esse posse, can be unhappy. 

1292. — Explanation. — The reason of this rule is that such second- 
ary sentences contain a reference to the statements or opinions of others 
than the writer, and therefore they must be regarded by him rather as 
Conceptions than as facts. (Compare 1255.) Thus, in the examples 
above, the secondary sentences may be supposed to contain parenthetically 
the notion a you admit," " it is agreed," or such like. The name ** ^At- 
tracted Subjunctive,'' or " Subjunctive by Attraction," is given to 
this use of the mood in order to imply that the Subjunctive is not employed 
by reason of the nature of the thought, but because of its being under 
the influence of the preceding verb. 

1293. — Obs. 1. The Indicative Mood is employed in secondary 
sentences in this position — 

(a) If the writer wishes to make the thought his own : Referunt apud 
Suevos silvam esse inflnlta magnitudine, quae appellator Bacinis, 
" They report that there is among the Suevi a forest of immense 
size, and this (I tell you) is called Bacenis." — Caes. 

129d. — (b) If the secondary sentence merely states a simple fact or 
general truth periphrastically : Dent operam consides, praetorls, 
quique consuldres sunt ad urbem, ne quid respublica detrimenU capiat, 
" (It is decreed that) the consuls, praetors, and the consulars who 
are near the city, see to it that the republic receive no harm," 
Caes. (= consuldres ad urbem). Marius Plctium dilexit, cPjus 
ingenio putdbat ea, quae gesserat, posse celebrari, " Marius was fond 
of Plotius, by whose talent he thought that his exploits could be 
celebrated," Cic. (= res a se gestas). 



REPORTED SPEECH (Oratio Obliqua). 

129S. — The words of a speech may be reported in two ivays — 

(1) Giving the words exactly as they were uttered ; as, Ariovistus 
said: "I will not give back the hostages to the Aedui, whatever you 
may say." This is called Direct Speech (5ratio recta). 



1296] INDIRECT SPEECH. 305 

(2) Giving the sense only, the first and second persons being changed 
to the third ; as, Ariovistus said that he would not give back the 
hostages to the Aedui, whatever he (Caesar) might say. This is 
called Indirect Speech (oratio obliqua). 

1296. — In Sratio obliqua the matter of the whole speech is made 
the object of the verb which introduces it (he said, he answered, he asked, 
he commanded, etc.), and therefore — 

A. All the assertions become nominal assertions, and have their 
verbs in the Infinitive Mood, with the subjects in the accusative. 
(1135.) 

B. All the real questions become nominal questions, and have 
their verbs in the Subjunctive Mood. (1182.) 

C. All rhetorical questions, which are really disguised assertions, have 
their verbs in the Infinitive, with the subject in the accusative. 
These are most commonly questions in the First or Third 
Person. 

D. All the commands become nominal COmmands 9 and have 
their verbs in the Subjunctive Mood. (1200.) 

E. All the secondary sentences, being now attached to either Subjunctive 
or Infinitive clauses, have their verbs in the Subjunctive by 
Attraction. (1291.) 

F. If the Indicative Mood occurs in a secondary sentence, it expresses 
an assertion which the narrator makes his own, and does not attrib- 
ute to the speaker. (1293.) 

G. All sentences, which contained the Subjunctive in the speech as de- 
livered, retain the Subjunctive. 

H. All Pronouns of the First or Second Person are changed to the 
Third Person, and the Reflective Pronouns s§, suus, some- 
times ipse, generally take the place of ego, nos, meus, noster, 
sometimes of tu, vos, tuus, vester. 

I. Most commonly the verb which introduces the speech is in a Tense 
past, and then the tenses of the Subjunctive will be past (1164). 
But sometimes the introducing verb is in a Tense not past, and then 
the tenses of the Subjunctive may be present (1164), as they 
sometimes are even after a Tense past. 

The above rules will be best understood by studying the following pas- 
sages in which the same speeches are given in both modes of reporting. 
The capital letters inserted in the oratio obliqua refer to the above rules. 



306 



INDIRECT SPEECH. 



[1297, 1298 



1297.—Oratio Recta. 
Divico ita loquitur: 

Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helve tils faciei, in earn par- 
tern ibunt atque ibi erunt Hel- 
vetil ubi tu eos constitueWs 
atque esse volueris : sin bello 
persequi perseveres, reminiscere 
et veteris incommodi populi Ro- 
man! et pristinae virtutis Helve- 
tiorum. Quod improviso tinum 
pagum adortus es, cum ii qui 
flumen troiisierant suls auxilium 
ferre non ipoterant, ne ob earn 
rem aut time magnopere virtutl 
tribueris aut nos despexem. 
Nos ita a patribus majoribusque 
nostrls didicimits ut ma°is vir- 
tute quam dolo contendtfmws 
aut insidiis vltamur, Quare ne 
commiseris ut hie locus ubi 
constitinius ex calamitate populi 
Roman! et internecione exercittis 
nomen capiat aut memoriam 
prodat. 



Oratio Obliqua. 
Is ita cum Caesare egit : 

Si pacem populus Romanus cum 
Helvetils faeeret (E, I) in earn par- 
tem \turos (A) atque ibi fuluros (A) 
ubi eos Caesar constitute/ (E, I) 
atque esse voluisset (E, I) : sin bello 
persequi persever«re£ (E, I) reminisce- 
retur (D, I) et veteris incommodi populi 
Roman! et pristinae virtutis Helveti- 
orurn. Quod improviso unum pagum 
adortus esset (E, I) cum ii qui fiumen 
tmnsissent (E) suls auxilium ferre non 
potuissent (E) ne ob earn rem aut 
suae (H) magnopere virtutl tribuere* 
(D) aut ipsos (H) despiceret: se (H) 
ita a patribus majoribusque suls (H) 
didicisse (A) ut magis virtute quam 
dolo contendere^ (G, I) aut insidiis 
mterentur (G, I). Quare ne commit- 
ierei (D, I) ut is (H) locus ubi consti- 
tissent (E, I) ex calamitate populi 
Roman! et internecione exercittis 
nomen capered (G, I) aut memoriam 
prodere*(G, I).— Caes. B. G. i., 13. 



129 S* — Kespondit Caesar: 
Eo mihi minus dubitationis 
d&tur quod eas res, quas vos 
(legati Helvetil) commemoraws- 
tis, memoria teneo : atque eo 
gravius fero quo minus merit 6 
populi Roman! accident / qui 
si alicujus injuriae sibi conscius 
fuisset, non fuit difficile cavere : 
sed eo decep^s est quod neque 
commissum a se mteWigebat 
quare timeret, neque sine causa 
timendum put&bat. Quod si 
veteris contumeliae obllviscl ve~ 
Urn,* num etiam recentium inju- 
riarum, quod me invito iter per 
provinciam per vim tentasfts, 
quod Aeduos, quod Ambarros, 
quod Allobroges vexasft's, memo- 
riam deponere possum? Quod 
vestra victoria tarn insolenter 
gloriamim quodque tamdiu vos 



His Caesar ita respondit : 

Eo sibi (H) minus dubitationis 
d&ri (A) quod eas res quas legati 
Helvetil (H) commemorasse??/ (E, I) 
memoria tenere£ (E, I) : atque eo 
gravius ferre (A) quo minus merito 
populi Roman! accidissent (E, I) : qui 
si alicujus injuriae, sibi conscius fuisset 
(G), non fuisse difficile cavere : sed 
eo deceptum quod neque commissum 
a se intelligere* (E) quare timeret (G) 
neque sine causa timendum putarel 
(E). Quod si veteris contumeliae 
obllviscl vellei (G, I) num etiam 
recentium injuriarum, quod eo in- 
vito iter per provinciam per vim 
tentassen^, (E) quod Aeduos, quod 
Ambarros, quod Allobroges vex- 
assent (E) memoriam deponere 
posse ? (C) Quod sua (H) victoria tarn 
insolenter glori&renhcr (E), quod 
que tarn diu se (H) impune injurias 



* It is believed that velim is the true transcription, being the potential subjunctive, 
used instead of the Indicative, in forming the condition of Hypothetical Period No. I. 
But Madvig gives volo. 



1299, 1300] 



INDIRECT SPEECH. 



307 



imptine injuries tulisse admlra- 
mirih eodem pertine£ Consue- 
runt enim dii hnniortales, quo 
gravius homines ex cornmutatione 
rerum doleant, quos pro scelere 
eorum ulcisci velint, his seeun- 
diores interdum res et diuturni- 
orem impunitatem concedere. 
Cum haec ita sint, tamen si 
obsides a vobls mihi dahuntur 
uti ea quae pollicemmi facturos 
intelligam, et si Aeduis de inju- 
rils quas ipsis socilsque eorum 
intulistis, item si Allobrogibus 
satisfacieYis, equidem cum vobls 
pacem faciam. 



tulisse admlrare^wr (E), eodem 
pertinere (A). Consuesse (A) enim 
deos (A) irnmortales, quo gravius 
homines ex cornmutatione rerum 
doleant (G) quos pro scelere eorum 
ulcisci velint, his secundiores inter- 
dum res et dititurniorem impuni- 
tatem concedere. Cum ea (H) ita 
sint, tamen si obsides ab its (H) 
sibi (H) dentur (E) uti ea quae 
polliceawto (E) facturos intelligat (G, 
H) et si Aeduis de injurhs quas 
ipsis sociisque eorum intalerint (E), 
item si Allobrogibus satisfacia^ (E) 
sese (A, H) cum iis (H) pacem esse 
facturum. Caes. B. 67. i., 14. 



1299 . — Caesar ita loctitus 
est: 

Ariovistws me consule, cupi- 
dissime popull RomanI amicitiam 
apyefivit: ctir hunc tarn temere 
quisquam ab officio discessurum 
judicet ? Mihi quid em persua- 

] detur, cognitis ?nels postulatis 
atque aequitate conditionum per- 
specta, eum neque meam neque 
popull RomanI gratiam repudia- 
turum. Quod si furore atque 
amentia impulsus bellum intu- 
lerii, quid tandem Yeremini, aut 

I cur de vesira virtute aut de meet 
dlligentia desperaft's t Factum 

j ejus hostis periculum patrum nos- 

\ trorum memoria cum, Cimbrls et 
Teutonls a Caio Mario pulsis, non 
minorem laudem exercitus quam 

I ipse imperator meritus videbatur. 
Ex quo jtidicarl potest quantum 
habeas in se bom constantia : 
propterea quod, quas aliquamdiu 

I inermos sine causa timuerant, 
hos postea armatos ac victores 

, swpevsLverunt. 



Yehementer eos inctisavit : 

Ariovistom (A) se (H) consule, cupi- 
dissime popull RomanI amicitiam appe- 
tlsse (A) : ctir hunc tarn temere quis- 
quam ab officio discessurum judical 
(Obs. 2.) Sibi (H) quidem persuaders 
(A) cognitis suis (H) postulatis atque 
aequitate conditionum perspecta, eum 
neque suam (H) neque popull Ro- 
manI gratiam repudiattirum. Quod si, 
furore atque amentia impulsus, bel- 
lum mtulisset (E, I) quid tandem 
\QVQ7 % entur (B) aut ciir de sua (H) 
virtute aut de ipslus (H) dlligentia 
desper&>ew£ f Factum ejus hostis 
periculum patrum nostrorum (Obs. 4) 
memoria, cum Cimbrls et Teutonls a 
Caio Mario pulsis non minorem laudem 
exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus 
videbatur (F). Ex quo judical! posse 
(Obs. 1) [al. posset] quantum habere 
(G, I) in se bonl constantia : propterea 
quod, quos aliquamdiu inermos sine 
causa timuissent, hos postea armatos 
atcme victores superasse?^ (E). — Caes. 
b! Q. i., 40. 



1300, — Obs. 1. In the above passage, posse is undoubtedly the true 
I reading, because the relative pronoun quo is in that place merely a demon- 
! strative with a conjunction, "but from this " (701), and therefore it does 
i not introduce a secondary sentence, but another assertion ; and accordingly 
I the sentence comes under A and not under E. The reading posse is 
adopted by Long and Kraner. 



308 THE GERUNDIVE. [1301-1304 

1301. — Obs. 2. In line 4 of the above passage it might be supposed 
that cur quisquam judicdret, being a rhetorical question, and equivalent to 
the implied assertion " no one ought to judge," should be cur quemquam 
judicdre, according to C. But the question as asked in ordtio recta would 
have the potential subjunctive (1177), and therefore the subjunctive is re- 
tained in the ordtio obllqua by G. 

Obs. 3. Sometimes, also, in secondary sentences, introduced by quia, 
quum interim, etc., the Infinitive Mood is found instead of the Sub- 
junctive, some such verb as dlceret or putdret (cf. 1257) being under- 
stood : Aegerrime plebs ferebat jacere tamdiu irritds sanctiones quae de sins 
comrnodls ferrentur, quum interim de supplicio sud Idtam legem confesttm 
exerceri, "The plebeians were very indignant that regulations which were 
passed for their advantage should remain so long without effect, while (they 
saw that) a law made for their punishment was instantly put in force." — Liv. 

1302, — Obs. 4. In line 15 above, it will be observed that the first 
personal pronoun (nostrorum, and so, nos, elsewhere) is retained as not 
referring to the speaker himself, but to the side or party of the writer 
or narrator. 

1303.— Obs. 5. When a Hypothetical Period occurs in the 
ordtio obllqua, the law of the sequence of tenses (I) will often make the 
second form appear like the third. The following sentences may be taken 
as examples of the changes of each of the three forms when recurring in 

ordtio obllqua. 

First Form : Si hoc dicis erras. 

Censet, si hoc dicat eum errare. 
Censebat, si hoc dlceret, eum errare. 

Second Form : Si hoc dicas, erres. 

Censet, si hoc dicat, eum erraturum esse. 
Censebat, si hoc dlceret, eum erraturum esse. 



Third Form: Si hoc dlceres (dixisses), errares (erravisses). 

Censet, or ) Si hoc dlceret, eum erraturum esse. 
Censebat, J Si hoc dixisset, eum erraturum fuisse. 



THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND. 

1304.— The Gerundive is a Verbal Adjective of 
the Passive Voice. It is sometimes called the Future 
Participle Passive ; but it is rather Imperfect in meaning, 
and seems to be connected in form with the Imperfect 
Participle Active. 

The Gerundive has three uses : — 

I. It is used as a complement of the verb sum, and therefore in 



1305-1307] THE GERUNDIVE AS COMPLEMENT. 309 

the nominative or the accusative case. In this connection it forms 
what is called (329) the Second Periphrastic Conjugation, and im- 
plies duty or necessity : i. e., that something ought to be done 
or must be done. 

II. It is used with verbs of taking, giving, causing, etc., in 
agreement with their object if Active, and with their subject if Pas- 
sive, to imply the purpose of the act of giving, taking, etc. 

III. It is used as a substitute for the Gerund in certain cases. 



I. THE GERUNDIVE AS THE COMPLEMENT OF 

SUM. 

1305. — Eule CII. The Gerundive is used as 

the complement of the verb sum, to express duty 

or necessity; and the agent, or the person on 

whom the obligation rests, if expressed, is put in 

! the dative case ; as, 

(1) Dlligentia nobis adhibenda est, We must observe diligence. 

(2) Resisiendum est senectuti, We must resist old age. 

(3) Sua cuique judicio utendum Each man must use his own judg- 

est, ment. 

1306.— Explanation.— A. Gerundive of Transitive Verbs. 

— The first of these examples is an instance of the Gerundive formed from 
a Transitive Verb, It shows that the accusative object of the 
Active verb is made the subject of the verb est, and that the Gerundive is 
used as the complement (666) of est in precisely the same way as the Per- 
fect Participle is used in forming the Perfect Tenses Passive. The Dative 
nobis must be regarded as the Dative of Interest (845-'7) with est, and not 
as in strictness the Agent governed by the Gerundive. 

1307* — B. Gerundive of Intransitive Verbs* — The second 
and third of these examples are instances of the Gerundive formed from 
Intransitive Verbs. Since these have no accusative object in the 
Active, resisto governing the Dative, and utor governing the Ablative, they 
can, of course, have no subject in the Passive (see 263), and if used at all 
in the Passive form must be used Impersonally (453). Thus : resistimus 
senectuti will become in the Passive form senectuti resistitur, or in the 
Gerundive resisiendum est. But with regard to the third example, it is 



310 THE GERUNDIVE AS COMPLEMENT. [1308-1312 

to be observed that Tdor is a Deponent Verb, and, the only form which 
is uniformly Passive from Deponent Verbs being the Gerundive, the Imper- 
sonal construction is only possible with the Gerundive. Thus, Tditur suo 
judicio can have no Impersonal Passive construction except the one given 
in Example 3. 

130 8* — Obs. 1. It is thought by some writers that the neuter form in 
the above Impersonal construction is not the Gerundive but the nom- 
inative of the Gerund. Thus : omnibus moriendum est, " all must 
die," is explained as if moriendum were the subject and not the comple- 
ment of est : " dying is to all." But it is believed that the explanation of 
all Impersonal Passive constructions is the same ; namely, that the real 
subject is the abstract notion of the action implied by the verb, and that 
in strictness the predicate in all cases is some such general notion as is 
{has been, must be) done. Thus : a militibus pugncdur should be explained 
"the action of fighting is done by the soldiers." It maybe considered 
that this abstract notion is expressed by the Infinitive Mood understood : 
to pmgndre a militibus pugncdur, in which instead of a general predicate 
such as fit, factum est, etc., a cognate predicate was preferred. If 
the Infinitive be really the understood subject, the fact that a participle or 
the Gerundive in the predicate is always in the neuter gender is in accord- 
ance with the general rule for a Complement (666), the Infinitive being a 
neuter noun. 

13 09 — Obs. 2. On the above theory of this construction, when the 
Intransitive Gerundive is accompanied by its case, as in Examples 2 and 3, 
that case must be considered to be governed by the understood in- 
finitive, and not by the Gerundive, w r hich is only a general expression, 
such as " must be done," which happens to be expressed by a form cognate 
to the understood infinitive. Thus : in residendum est senectuti, the real 
construction is : to resistere senectuti est resistendum ; suo cuique judicio est 
idendum, is to suo judicio utl est cuique utendum, in which sentences resis- 
tendum and utendum really stand in a cognate way for some such general 
predicate as faciendum ; " the business of withstanding old age is to be 
done ; " " the task of using his own judgment is to be done by each man." 

1310* — Obs. 3. The Agent with the Gerundive Construction is, 
according to the Rule, nearly always in the Dative* But it is sometimes 
expressed by the Ablative with a, particularly if the use of the Dative 
might cause ambiguity. Thus Cicero says, Aguntur bona midtorum clvium, 
quibus est a vobis consulendum, " The property of many citizens is at stake, 
whose interests ought to be consulted by you ; " whereas, if he had said 
quibus vobis, it might be understood that quibus expressed the persons on 
whom the obligation rested. 

1311. — Obs. 4. Besides the cases referred to in Obs. 3, there are a 
few other passages in Cicero in which a with the ablative is used for the 
agent without apparent reason : Hacc a me in dicendo praetereunda non sunt, 
" These things I must not pass over in speaking." 

1312. — Obs. 5. Very rarely in the best writers is the Imper- 
sonal Construction used in the case of Transitive Verbs, 



1313-1316] VERBS OF TAKING, GIVING, ETC. 311 

which properly have the Personal Constructive : Canes paucos et acres ha- 
bendum est, " One should keep few dogs but active ones," Varr. ; for Canes 
paitcl et acres habendl sunt. So Cic. Sen. ii. 6, tanquam aliquatn viam Ion- 
gam confeceris, quam nobis quoque ingrediendum sit, " As if you have com- 
pleted a long journey, which we too must enter upon." AeternGs poenGs in 
morte timendum est, " They must fear eternal punishments in death." — 
Lucr. 1, 112. 

1313. — Obs. 6. Of course, when the Gerundive Construction is made 
the object or subject of a verb, it takes the form of a nominal asser- 
tion (1135), and the verb est, sunt, etc., becomes the infinitive, and the 
Gerundive is in the accusative case to agree with the subject : Neque Ilis- 
pciniam negligendam esse ratus est, u Nor did he judge that Spain ought to 
be neglected." 

1314:. — Obs. 7. The Gerundive sometimes appears to have the mean- 
ling of possibility or fitness chiefly in connection with vix, or in in- 
terrogative or conditional sentences which imply a negative : Vix erat 
crcdendum, = vix credi poterat, "It could hardly be believed." — Caes. Si 
Circe et Calypso mulieres appellandae sunt, " If Circe and Calypso can be 
called women." — Cic. The Gerundive is sometimes used without est {sunt) 
as an attributive adjective in this sense : Labores non fugiendos, " Labors 
which cannot be avoided ; " Potentia vix ferenda, " Power hardly to be 
endured " — Cic. 



II. THE GERUNDIVE WITH VERBS OF Talcing, 

Giving, Etc 

1315. — Rule CIII. The Gerundive is used 
'with verbs of Taking, Giving, Caring for, etc., 
jto imply that something is to be done to their 
iobject if the verbs are active, and to their subject 
if the verbs are passive : 

Urbem dux militibus diripiendam The General gave up the city to the 

dedit {Active). soldiers to plunder. 

Urbs a duce militibus dlripienda The city was given up by the Gen- 

data est {Passive). eral to the soldiers to plunder. 

1316* — Obs. 1. This construction is common with the verb curare, 
" to take care of: " Caesar pontem in Ararl faciendum curat, " Caesar has 
a bridge constructed over the Saone, lit, takes care of a bridge to be 
made." 



312 USE OF THE GERUND, [1317-1321 

1317* — Obs. 2. The Infinitive Mood is sometimes used in this 
connection by the poets : Tristitiam et metus trddam protervis in mare 
Creticum portare venils, "I will give my sadness and my fears to the wan- 
ton winds to carry to the Cretan sea." — Hon. In prose this is a rare ex- 
ception, occurring in Cicero only in the phrase bibere ministrdre (without 
accusative), " to give to drink." (Tusc. i. 26.) 

1318. — Obs. 3. Though it is proper to say habeo aedem tuendam, "I 
have a temple to keep up," yet habeo statuendum, dlcendum, etc., " I have 
to decide, say," is a later idiom. But habeo is used with the Infini- 
tive of dlco, serlbo, polliceor, etc., in the sense of i" have io, I can : Haec 
fere dicer e habul de ndturd deorum, " This is what I had to say concerning 
the nature of the gods." — Cic. 



III. THE GERUNDIVE USED IN PLACE OF THE 

Gerund. 

1310. — The Gerund is a neuter Verbal Noun of the active voice, 
used only in the oblique cases of the singular 9 and expresses the ac- 
tion of a verb as an abstract notion, just as the Infinitive Mood does. The 
Infinitive, however, is used ordinarily only in the nominative and accusa- 
tive cases, and as the object or subject of a verb (see 1118, 1120), and the 
Gerund supplies its place for the other cases, and also for the accusative 
when governed by a preposition. 

1320. — Examples of the Use op the Gerund as the Supple- 
ment of the Infinitive. 

Nom. Natare est utile, " Swimming is useful." 

Gen. Natandl sum peritus, u I am skilled in swimming." 

Dat. Natando homo aptus est, " Man is fit for swimming." 

A ( Natdre disco, " I learn swimming." 

( Ad natandum homo aptus est, " Man is fit for swimming." 
Abl. Natando corpus ezercetur, " The body is exercised by 

swimming." 

1321. — The Gerund, being a verbal noun, is modified by adverbs 
and not by adjectives, and governs the case of its verb : Parsimonia 
est ars re familiar l moderate utendi, "Frugality is the art of using one's 
property with moderation." — Sen. 

But if the Gerund belong to a Transitive Verb, and have its ob- 
ject expressed, in most cases the Gerundive was used instead of it by the 
following Rule: 



1322-1326] GERUNDIVE FOE THE GERUND. 313 

1322.— Rule CIV. The Gerundive is used in 
all cases except the Nominative and Vocative, in 
agreement with a Substantive, as equivalent to a 
Gerund governing the Accusative ; as, * 

qw»,™ i Agrum colendi (a) Gerund, ) ™ . A - A . 1V A , 

fibrftum X^coUndi^&enindiie, [ T ^ pursuit of tilhng the soil. 

1323.— -Explanation.— The English Verbal Substantive in -ing ex- 
actly represents the Latin Gerund : and therefore the Gerund con- 
struction (a) is that which we should naturally adopt in translating such 
sentences as the above. 

But the Gerundive construction (b) is much preferred in Latin, 
and for the Dative and Accusative cases of the Gerund is nearly 
always adopted. It will be observed that — 

1324:. — (1) The object of the Gerund in (a) (agrum) is changed in(b) 
into the case of the Gerund (agri). 

(2) The Gerund in (a) is changed in (b) into the Gerundive, in agree- 
ment with agri. 

(3) The noun sludium, which in (a) is limited by the Gerund, with its 
object, colendi agrum, is limited in (b) by the Gerundive with its 
noun, agri colendi. 

Therefore, in the Gerund construction (a), the Gerund is first 
governed and then governs its object : in the Gerundive construc- 
tion (b), the noun is governed, and then the Gerundive agrees with it. 

1325.— Note. 1. The deponent Verbs, utor, "use," fruor, "en- 
joy," fungor, "discharge," potior, "become possessed of," glorior, 
"boast," though they commonly govern an ablative, yet, since they were 
originally reflective, and governed the accusative, are sometimes found in 
the°Gerundive construction: Teneudw est voluptotis fruendae modus , " We 
must hold fast moderation in enjoying pleasure." But as complement of 
esse, the impersonal construction is nearly always preferred. 

1326.— Note. 2. Though the Gerund belongs to the Active Voice, 
it is sometimes found with apparently a passive sense : Antoniufi Italia 
cesserat: spes restituendl nulla erat, " Antonius had quitted Italy: he had 
no hope of being restored," Nep., i. e., restitutionis, or fore ut resiitueritur. 
Multa non habent imignem et propriam percipiendl notam, " Many things 
have not a clear and precise mark by which they can be known."— Cic. 

14 



• 



314: CASES OF THE GERUND. [1327-1331 



CASES OF THE GERUND. 

1327.— I. Genitive.— The Genitive of the Gerund (or Gerundive) 
is governed by such substantives as ars, faculties, occasio, ratio, stadium, 
libido, amor, tspes, causa, gratia ; and by adjectives of similar meaning, 
such as cupidus, studidsus, memor, perltus, ignarus, etc. With the Geni- 
tive of the Gerund an accusative object is often found : Parsimonia 
est scientia vltandl sumptus supervacuos, " Economy is the science of avoid- 
ing unnecessary expenses," Sen. ; nulla causa justa esse potest contra patriam 
arma capiendl, Cic. [Gerundive : Armorum capiendomim.] Demosthenes 
Platonis studidsus audiendl fuit, " Demosthenes was desirous of hearing 
Plato." — Cic. [Gerund : Platonem audiendl.'] 

1328. — Obs. 1. The Gerund construction is to be preferred when the 
use of the Gerundive would cause an ambiguity as to gender. Thus : 
" desire of learning more things," should be translated cupldo plura cog- 
noscendi, and not plurium cognoscendorum, since it could not be told whether 
plurium were masculine or neuter. 

1329. — Obs. 2. A Genitive case, instead of an accusative, is 
sometimes found governed by the Genitive of a Gerund : Exemplorum 
eligendl potestas, " A power of selecting (of ) examples," Cic, for exempla 
eligendl, or exemplorum eligendorum. Zumpt thinks that this is a mere 
instance of a confusion of the two modes of expression. Possibly both 
Genitives may depend directly on the noun, " A power over examples of 
selecting; them." 



"O 



1380. — Obs. 3. The Genitive of the Gerund (or Gerundive) is often 
used to express purpose with causa or gratia : Legatl Delphos missl 
sunt dracull consulendi causa, " Envoys were sent to Delphi for the pur- 
pose of consulting the oracle." But frequently the Gerund, or Ge- 
rundive alone is used in the same sense : Naves decidendi operis 
missae sunt, " Ships were sent (for the purpose) of destroying the work." — 
Caes. So with esse : Regium imperium initio conservandae libertdtis fuerat, 
" At first the power of the kings was (used for the purpose) of preserving 
freedom." — Sall. 

Obs. 4. For the Genitive of the Gerund in agreement with met, tul, etc., 
see 1011 

1331. — Obs. 5. The Infinitive Mood is often used, especially 
by the poets, in place of the Genitive of the Gerund (or Gerundive). Most 
of the examples which occur in prose may be explained as in 1120. But 
we find avidus committer 'e pugnam (for pugnae committendae), " eager to join 
battle ; " cupidus attingere (for atlingendl), " desirous of reaching ; " cantare 
perltus (for cantandl), " skilled in singing." Caesar says in one place, 
Galll consilium ceperunt ex oppido profugere, " The Gauls formed the de- 
sign of fleeing from the town ; " in another, Galll legionis opprimendae 
consilium ceperunt, " The Gauls formed the design of crushing the legion." 



1332-1339] cases of the gerund. 315 

1332.— -II. Dative.— -The Dative of the Gerund (or Gerundive) is 
used after Adjectives which govern the Dative, especially after utUis, inuti- 
lis, par, idoneus, aptus, and after verbs and other expressions denoting a 
purpose or design : Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo, " Water full of natron 
is useful for drinking."— Plin. Hosles erant pugnando pares, "The enemy 
were equal to fighting." — Caes. Consul placandls dils dat operam, " The 
Consul gives his attention to the propitiation of the gods." — Liv. 

1333, — Obs. 1. The later writers use the Dative of the Gerund (or 
Gerundive) freely to express purpose : Tiberius quasi firmandae valetii- 
dini in Campaniam concessit, u Tiberius went into Campania, as if to pro- 
mote his health." — Tac. 

1334.— Obs. 2. The verb esse alone is sometimes used with the 
Dative of the Gerund (or Gerundive) : Magius solvendo non erat, " Magius 
was not solvent (lit. for paying)." — Cic. Ambitiones evertendae reipublicae 
solent esse, "Intrigues are wont to tend to (lit. be for) overthrowing a 
state."— Cic. 

1335. — Obs. 3. The Dative of the Gerundive is regularly used in 
stating the duties for which officers are appointed : Triumviri colonils 
deducendls, " A board of three for settling colonies ; " Demosthenes curator 
muris reficiendls fait, " Demosthenes was a superintendent of (for) repair- 
ing the walls." — Cic. 

1336.— Obs. 4. The Dative of the Gerund with an object Ac- 
cusative is very unusual. It occurs in Plautus after dare operam : Epidi- 
cum quaerendo operam dabo, " I will take pains in (for) looking for Epidicus." 

1337* — HI. Accusative. — The Accusative of the Gerund (or Ge- 
rundive) is only used after a few prepositions ; most frequently after 
ad, " to," and inter, " during," or " amid," rarely after ante, circa, ob : 
Ad docendum projiensl sumus, "We are naturally inclined to teach." — Cic. 
Mores pmerorum se inter ludendum detegunt, " The character of boys mani- 
fests itself during their play." — Cic. Galll inter accipiendum aurum caesl 
sunt, " The Gauls were cut down while receiving the gold." — Liv. Existi- 
mans Jugurtham ob suds tutandos venturum, " Thinking that Jugurtha 
would come to protect his people." — Sall. 

1338. — Obs. 1. The Accusative of the Gerund (or Gerundive) with 
ad is often used to express a purpose, but not a negative one. (See 1214.) 
In connection with adjectives it implies "in regard to:" Res facilis ad 
intelligendum, " An easy matter to understand." (See 1326, Note 2.) 

1339. — Obs. 2. An Accusative of the object is sometimes 
found with the Accusative Gerund : ad placandum Deos, " for appeasing 
the gods," Cic. ; but chiefly where the use of the Gerundive construction 
would cause a doubt as to the Gender : Diogenes dicebat, artem se trader -e 
vera ac falsa dljudicandi, " Diogenes professed to impart the art of distin- 
guishing between the true and the false," where vvrorum ac falsorum 
d'j ' fidicandorum might be mistaken for the masculine. See 1328. 



316 USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. [1340-1344 

1340* — IV. Ablative. — The Ablative of the Gerund (or Gerundive) 
is used as an Ablative of means, or cause, sometimes of the manner ; and 
also after some prepositions, particularly in ; also ab, ex, de ; rarely cum, 
pr5, super: Multi patrimonia effuderunt inconsulte largiendo, " Many have 
squandered their inheritance by being bountiful without consideration." — 
Cic. Insectandls palribus tribundtum gessit, "He spent his tribuneship in 
assailing the patricians." Lex est recta ratio injubendo et vetando, " Law is 
right reason in bidding and forbidding." 

134:1. — Obs. 1. An Object Accusative is rarely found dependent 
upon an Ablative of the Gerund, hardly ever if the Gerund is governed by 
a preposition : thus we must say hi victore laudando, not in laudando vic- 
tor em (Madvig); but we find in Livy, xxx. 13, in alloquendo victor em,, "in 
addressing the conqueror ; " and in Cicero, Tusc. i. 43, a nimis intuendo 
fortunam alterius, " from gazing too much on the good fortune of another." 
Without a preposition it occurs, but seldom, the Gerundive construction 
being preferred : Homines ad deus nulla re propius accedunt, quam salidem 
hominibus dandd, " In nothing to do men approach nearer to the gods, than 
in giving safety to other men." — Cic. 

1342. — Obs. 2. The Ablative of the Gerund (or Gerundive) is very 
rarely governed by an adjective or the jirepositiOTl pr5, " instead 
of: " Contentus possidendis agrls, " Content with possessing the lands (for 
possessione agrorum)y — Liv. Hannibal pro ope ferendd socils, " Hannibal 
instead of bringing aid to his allies," Liv. ; which would usually be ex- 
pressed by omisso opts socils ferendae consilio. 



THE USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 

1343. — Participles, being Verbal Adjectives, express the action 
of the Verb as a property belonging to a person or thing, and therefore 
agree with nouns while they may govern cases. They have no distinct 
forms to express Time, but represent the action spoken of as being either 
finished (Perfect), unfinished (Imperfect), or yet to come to pass 
(Future), at the time denoted by the verb of the sentence in which they 
occur, in just the same way as the forms of the Infinitive Mood do. See 
1127-1129. 

1344. — The Latin Verb is defective in its participial forms : there 
being in the Active Voice no Perfect Participle, and in the Passive no 
Present (Imperfect) or Future Participle. But Deponent Verbs, having the 
Passive form with the Active meaning, supply in their Perfect Participle a 
form exactly corresponding to the English. Thus, the English " having 
loved " cannot be expressed exactly by a Latin Participial form, since there 
is no Deponent Verb meaning " to love ; " but " having set out " is exactly 
expressed by profectus, from the Deponent Verb proficiscor. 



1345-1350] USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 317 

134:5. — There are, however, a few Perfect Participles from 
Verbs not Deponent, which have an Active meaning. Of these the chief 
axejurdtus, " having sworn ; " coendtus, ''having dined; " pransus, "having 
breakfasted ; " nupta, "having married (of a bride); " 6ms, "having hated." 

1346. — On the other hand some Deponents have their Perfect 
Participles used both in an Active and Passive sense. Of these the 
chief are : adeptus (adipiscor), " having (or having been) attained ; " com- 
itdtus (comitor), " having (or having been) accompanied ; " mensus (metior), 
" having (or having been) measured ; " expertus (experior) " having (or 
having been) tried ; " meditdius (meditor), " having (or having been) prac- 
tised ; " testdtus (testor), " having (or having been) called to witness ; " moder- 
dtus (moderor), "having (or having been) controlled ;" populdtus (populor), 
" having (or having been) devastated ; " parfitus (partior) " having (or having 
been) divided; " pactus (paciscor), " having (or having been) bargained." 

1347.— -The want of a Perfect Participle Active is sup- 

plied in various ways ; chiefly by the use of the construction of the 
Ablative Absolute (964, ff.), or by the employment of quum with the Past 
Perfect Subjunctive. (1246). Thus : " Ariovistus having lieard of Caesar's 
arrival sent ambassadors to him," may be translated, Ariovistus (1) cognito 
Caesaris adventu (or (2) quum Caesaris adventum cognovisset) legdtos ad 
eum misit. 

Participles are used either Melatively or Absolutely* 

1348. — A. The Melative (Conjunctive) Participle is found in 
any case in agreement with one of the nouns which enter into the con- 
struction of the sentence, with the subject, the object, the limiting genitive, 
etc. : Aristides, patrid pulsus, Lacedaemonem fugit, " Aristides, being ban- 
ished from his country, fled to Lacedaemon ; " Alexandro coelestes honoris 
concupiscentl non deerat aduldtio, " To Alexander, coveting divine honors, 
flattery was not wanting ; " Hannibal Gracchum in insidids inductum sus~ 
tulit, " Hannibal destroyed Gracchus, having been led (by leading him) into 
an ambuscade." 

1349. — B. The Absolute Participle is found in the Ab- 
lative case (965) in agreement with a noun which does not enter into 
the construction of the sentence : Artes innmnerdbiles repertae sunt, docente 
ndturd, " Innumerable arts have been discovered, nature being the teacher ;•" 
Graeci Thermopylds, advenientibus Persis, occupdverunt, " The Greeks oc- 
cupied Thermopylae, when the Persians were coming." 



1330. — Kule CV. The Participle, whether 
Eelative or Absolute, is used to express various 



318 THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE. [1351-1356 

circumstances of the action, as Time, Means, Man- 
ner, Cause, Condition, etc., and is often to be ren- 
dered in English by a secondary sentence. 

1351* — (1.) Time. — Pythagoras, Tarquinio Superbo regnante, in 
Italiam venit, " Pythagoras came to Italy, while Tarquinius Superbus 
was king."-— Cic. Valerium hostes acerrime pugnantem occldunt, 
" The enemy slay Valerius while fighting with the greatest bravery." 
— Liv. 

1352. — (2.) JMeans, Manner* — Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos 
efficit, " The air, by flowing this way and that, produces the winds." 
— Cic. Mllites, pills missis, phalangem hosiium perfregerunt, " The 
soldiers, by hurling their javelins, broke through the phalanx of the 
enemy." — Caes. 

1353. — (3.) Cause. — Dionysius cultrds metuens tonsorios candentl 
carbone sibi adurebat capillum, " Dionysius, because he feared bar- 
bers' razors, singed his hair with a live coal." Flaminlnum Caelius 
religione neglecta cecidisse scrlbit, " Caelius writes that Flamininus 
fell because he disregarded religion." — Cic. 

1354:. — (4.) Condition. — Epistolae offendunt non loco reddilae, 
" Letters are offensive if they are delivered at the wrong time." — 
Cic. Maxima's vir tides jacere omnes necesse est, dominante voluptate, 
" All the greatest qualities must lie useless, if pleasure i3 allowed 
to rule." — Cic. 

1355.— Obs. 1. The Future Participle Active, expressing 
intention, destiny, etc., is, in the older writers, used almost wholly as a com- 
plement of esse, forming with it the First Periphrastic Conjugation. See 328. 
By the later writers it is constantly used as a Relative Participle to express 
Purpose (1214), and sometimes even absolutely: Magna pars hominum est, 
quae navigaiura de tempesiute non cogitat, " There is a large number of men, 
who, when they are about to go on a voyage, think not of the weather." — 
Sen. Alexander Persidis fines aditurus urbem Archeldo tradidit, " Alex- 
ander, when about to enter the confines of Persia, gave up the city to 
Archelaus." — Curt. AntiocJms seeurus erat, tanquam non transiturls in 
Asiam Romdnls, " Antiochus felt no anxiety, as if the Romans were not 
really going to cross into Asia." — Liv. 

1356. — Obs. 2. The two Future Participles, however, futurus and 
venttlrus, are used as simple adjectives, in the sense of our "future:" 
Opinio futurl boni, "Anticipation of future good," — Cic. So, in Horace: 
Belli moriiure, " Deliius, doomed to die." 



1357-1362] the supines. 319 

1357* — Obs. 3. The Perfect Participle Passive in agree- 
ment with a noun is often used where we should use an abstract noun : 

Major ex clvibus amissls dolor quam laetiiia fusis hostibus fuit, " The sor- 
row at the loss of the citizens was greater than the joy at the defeat of the 
enemy." — Liv. Ademptus Hector, "The removal of Hector (lit. Hector 
being removed)."; — Hon. 

1358. — Obs. 4. The verb habeo, with a Perfect Participle 

of a verb denoting insight or resolution, forms a periphrasis similar to 
our Perfect Tenses in English, but brings out prominently the present 
condition of things : Siculi fidem meam spectdtam jam et diu eognitam 
habent, " The Sicilians have now for a long time seen and known my faith- 
fulness ;" Habes jam statutum, " You have already resolved." — Cic. 

1359. — Obs. 5. The neuter of the Perfect Participle is 

sometimes used as an abstract substantive : Priusquam incipids, constdtd, 
et ubi consulueris mature facto opus est, " Before you begin, you need coun- 
sel ; and when you have taken counsel, you want prompt action." — Sall. 



THE SUPINES. 

The Supines are properly the Accusative and Abla- 
tive cases singular of Verbal Substantives of the Fourth 
Declension. 

1360. — Rule CVL The Accusative Supine is 
used after Verbs of Motion, to express the pur- 
pose of the motion ; as, 

Themistocles Argos habitdtum con- Themistocles went to Argos to 

cessitj live. 

Ducebat cokortes praeddtum, He led the cohorts to pillage. 

1361. — Obs. 1. The verb eo, "go," is used with the Accusative 

Supine to express the action more strongly : Bum panels sceleratis par- 
cunt, bonds omnls pcrditum eunt, " While they spare a few scoundrels, they 
go about to ruin all honest men."— Sall. 

1362. — Obs. 2. The Accusative Supine is used in connection 
with the Imperfect Infinitive Passive of eo, used impersonally, to form the 
Future Infinitive Passive ; and then the noun which appears to 
be the Subject of the Infinitive is really the Object of the Supine ; and of 
course the Supine, not being, like a participle, a complement, does not 
change its form to agree with the apparent subject : Spero meum consilium 
(mea consiUa, meam causam) probdtum %r\ " 1 hope that my plan (my plans, 
my cause) will be approved ; " i. e., " that people are going to approve," 



320 the supines. [1363-1368 

etc. See 330. But this form of the Future Infinitive Passive is only used 
when the future event is likely to occur soon. Otherwise, fore (futurum 
esse) ut io employed. See 1133. 

1363.— Obs. 3. Sometimes other verbs besides Verbs of Motion 
take an Accusative Supine: I) edit Caio filiam nuptum, "He gave 
Caius his daughter in marriage;" Divisit copicis hiematum, "He divided 
the troops for wintering." — Nep. 

1364. — Obs. 4. The Accusative Supine may govern the case of 

its verb : In urbem convenimus ludos spectdtum, u We came together to the 
city to see the games." 

1365. — Exile CVII. The Ablative Supine is 
used as an Ablative of Limitation (889) after 
some Adjectives ; as, 

Virtus difficilis inventu est, Virtue is difficult to find. 

O rem, auditu crudelem, visu nefd- Oh, what a fact, cruel to hear, mon- 
riam, strous to see. 

1366. — Obs. 1. The Adjectives which are thus followed by the 
Ablative Supine are such as these: jucundus, molestus, mavis, acerbus, 
durus, turpis, facilis, rarely dignus, indignus. Also the expressions ftis 
(nefds) est, opus est: Nefds est dictu miser am fuisse Fabii senectutem, " It 
is monstrous to say that the old age of Fabius was unhappy." — Cic. Quoad 
scltu opus est, " As far as is necessary for understanding." 

1367. — Obs. 2. In the oldest writers the Ablative Supine is used 
after Verbs of Motion, to express cessation from : Nunc obso- 
natTi redeo, " I am now coming back from getting provisions (from market)." 
— Plaut. Cubit a surgit, " He rises from rest." — Cat. In this use it is 
just the opposite of the Accusative Supine : cubitum eunt, " they go to rest." 

1368.— Obs. 3. But few verbs have the Ablative Supine in use; 
the chief are, factu, dictu, cognitu, auditu. Accordingly, the same mean- 
ing is expressed in other ways : 

(1) By the Infinitive Mood: JSFon facile est invenire, "It is not 
easy to find." — Cic. 

(2) By an Adverb with a finite tense of the verb : Facilius asellus, 
quam vacca, alitur, " An ass is easier to raise than a cow." — Vakr. 

(3) By the Gerund with ad : Ed cibo utendum est, qui sit facillimus 
ad concoquendum,, " We must use that food which proves the easiest 
to digest." — Cic. 

(4) By a Verbal Substantive : Utriusque rei facilis est defensio, 
" It is easy to defend each course." — Cic. 

Obs. 4. The Ablative Supine never governs a case. 



1369-1374] CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 321 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1369.— Rule CVIIL The Coordinate Con- 
junctions et } ac, atque, neo 7 neque, aut, vel, and 
some others, couple similar cases and moods ; as, 

Honor a patrem et matrem, Honor father and mother. 

Nee legit nee scrlbit, He neither reads nor writes. 

1370. — Explanation. — Words coupled by a conjunction under this 
Rule, are in the same construction, i. e., two nominatives coupled 
together are the subject of the same verb, or predicates of the same sub- 
ject; and nouns coupled together in the oblique cases are governed by the 
same word, as in the first example. Verbs thus coupled have the same 
subject or nominative, as in the second example. For a classification of 
the various coordinate and subordinate conjunctions, see 488-505. 

1371. — Obs. l. The Copulative Conjunctions under this 
Rule are such as et, ac, atque, etiam, que ; the disjunctives, nee, neque, aut, 
vel, seu, sive, ve, neve, neu ; also quant, practerquam, an, nempe, necdum, 
sed, autem, verum ; and, in general, such connectives as do not imply a 
dependence of the following on the preceding clause. 

1372. — Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words, but also 
clauses whose construction is the same, i. e., whose subjects are in the same 
case, and their verbs in the same mood ; as, coneidunt ventl, fugiuntque 
nubes. 

137 3 o — Obs. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a 
different case: still they are connected by the copulative conjunc- 
tions ; thus, meet et relpublicae interest, " it is of consequence to me and to 
the state." Here, mea and relpublicae, though in different cases, are in the 
same construction. The subjunctive being often used for the imperative is 
sometimes coupled with it ; as, disce nee invideas, " learn, and envy not." 

Obs. 4. The Indicative and Subjunctive may be connected in 
this manner if the latter does not depend on the former. 

1374:. — Obs. 5. When two words coupled together have each a con- 
junction, such as et, ant, vel; sive, nee, etc., without being connected with a 
preceding word, the first et is rendered both or likewise ; the first aut or vel, 
by either ; the first sive, by whether ; and the first nee or neque, by neither. 
So, also, turn .... turn, and cum .... turn, " not only .... but also," or 
" both .... and ; " and so of others ; as, nunc .... nunc ; jam .... jam, 
etc. In such cases, the conjunction before the first word renders it more 
emphatic : turn .... turn often mean, "at one time .... at another time." 

14* 



322 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. [1375-1378 

1375. — Note. — Affirmative and Negative sentences are con- 
nected by conjunctions in pairs, as follows : 

Affirmative. Negative. 

et — et, very common. neque — neque, nee — nee. 

et — que, not unfrequently. neque — nee, not unfrequently. 

que — et, connecting single words. nee — neque, seldom. 
que — que, only in poetry and Sall. 

Affirmative and Negative. 
et — neque, nee, very frequent. 

neque, nee — et, very frequent. 

nee, neque — que, occasionally. 



1376. — Obs. 8. After words expressing similarity or dissim- 
ilarity, ac and atque signify " as," and " than ; " as, fads ae si me 

roges, " you do as if you should ask me ; " — me colit aeque atque paironum 
suum, " he shows me as much attention as to his patron ; " — si alitcr scribo 
ac sentio, " if I write otherwise than I think." 

Obs. 1. The usage of the various kinds of Subordinate Conjunc- 
tions, so far as they affect construction, must be looked for in the sec- 
tions on the different kinds of secondary sentences. (1182-1290.) 



FXG-URES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax, is a manner of speaking different from the 
regular and ordinary construction, used for the sake of beauty or force. 

1377* — The figures of Syntax, or construction, may be reduced to 
four : Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enall'age, and Hyperbaion. Of these, the frst, 
second, and third, respect the constituent parts of a sentence ; the fourth 
respects only the arrangement of words. 

137 S. — 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words necessary 
to complete the sense ; as, 

Aiunt, ferunt, etc., sc, homines. Aberant bldul, sc, iter, or itinere. 
Quid multa? sc, dlcam. Under this may be comprehended, 

1st. A.syndeton 9 or the omission of a conjunction ; as, veni, vidi, 
vici. Dens optimus, maximus, sc, et. 

2d. Zeugma, is the uniting of two nouns or infinitives to a verb which 
is applicable only to one of them ; as, pacem an bellum gereus, 
"whether (enjoying, agens) peace or waging war," Sall., where 
gerens is applicable to bellum only. 

3d. Aposiopesis is the leaving a sentence unfinished : quds ego — 
sed motos praextat compbnere fuel us, " whom I — but it is better to 
calm the troubled waves." — Virg. 



1379-1381] FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 323 

1379* — 2; Pleonasm, is using a greater number of words than is 
necessary, to express the meaning ; as, 

Sic ore locuta est, " thus she spoke with her mouth." — Virg. Under 
this are included, 

1st. Polysyndeton, or, a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, una 
Eurus que JSfotus que ruunt. — Virg. 

2d. Hentliaclys? or the expression of an idea, by two nouns con- 
nectedly a conjunction, instead of a noun limited by an adjective 
or genitive ; as, Paterls llbamus et auro, " We offer a libation from 
cups and from gold," instead of pateris aurels, " from golden caps." 

3d. Periphrasis, or a circuitous mode of expression; as, tenerl 
foetus ovium, " the tender young of the sheep," instead of agrd, 
" lambs." 

13 SO* — 3. Enallage, is a change of words, or a change of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice, of the same word, for 
another. It includes, 

1st. Antimeria, or the using of one part of speech for another ; as, 
nostrum vlvere, for nostra vita ; conjugium videbit, for conjugem, etc. 

2d. Hypallage, or the using one case for another : major a initia re- 
rum, for initia mdjorum rlrum. — Lit. 

3d. Antipt5sis, or the using of one case for another; as, eul nunc cog- 
nomen Iulo, for Iidus (632). — Virg. Uxor invicil Jovis esse nescis, 
for te esse uxorem—RoR. See 1145. 

4th. Synesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a word, 
rather than to its gender or number ; as, Ooncursus populi mlran- 
tium ; — Pars in crucem actl ; — scelus qui, etc. 678 and 698. 

5th. Synecdoche, the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for 
a part ; as, puppis for navis, tectum for domus ; rex for Xerxls ; 
Poenus for Hannibal, etc. 

6th. Anacoluthon, or a departure in the end of a sentence, from the 
construction with which it commenced. Thus, Nam nos omnes qui- 

bus est alicunde aliquis objectus labos lucro est. Here the 

writer began as if he intended to say lucro habemus, and ended as 
if he had said nobis omnibus. As it is, the nominative nos has no 
verb, and est, which, in such sentences, requires the dative of a per- 
son, is without it. 

1381. — 4. Hyperbaton, is a transgression of the usual order 
of words or clauses. It includes, 

1st. Anastrophe, or an inversion Of the order of two words ; as, Trans- 

traper et remos, for per tramtra, etc. ; — Collo dare brachia circum, 

for circumdare, etc. 
2d. Hysteron proteron, or reversing the natural order of the sense ; 

as, Moriamur et in media arma ruamus. — Virg, Valet atque 

vlvit. — Ter. 

To these may be added, 



324 LATIN ARRANGEMENT. [1382-1387 

1382. — Archaism, which in Syntax means the use of ancient 
forms of construction ; as, Operam abutitur, for opera. — Ter. Quid tibi 
hanc caratio est rem $ 

1383, — Hellenism, or the use of Greek constructions ; as, Ab- 
stineto irdrum, for Iris. — Hon. Tempus desisiere pugnae, for pugnd. — Virg. 



LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 

1384:. — In all languages, the arrangement of words in a sentence is 
different ; and all, it is probable, consider the order of arrangement in their 
own language the most natural, being that to which they have themselves 
been most accustomed. In a language like the English, however, the 
words of which have but few changes of form or termination, much more 
depends on their position in a sentence than in those languages which are 
able, by the changes of form only, to indicate the relation of words to each 
other, however they may be arranged. Thus, when we say in English, 
"Alexander conquered Darius" if we change the order of the words, we 
necessarily change the meaning also ; as, Darius conquered Alexander. 
But whether we say in Latin, Alexander vicit Ddrlum, or Darium vicit 
Alexander, or Alexander Darium vicit, or Darium Alexander vicit, or 
place these words in any other possible order of arrangement, the meaning 
is the same, and cannot be mistaken ; because it depends, not on the posi- 
tion, but on the form of the words. This gave the Latin writer much 
more scope to arrange his words in that order which would best promote 
the strength or euphony of the sentence, without endangering its perspi- 
cuity. Still, even in Latin, custom has established a certain order of ar- 
rangement which is considered the best. And, though no certain rules can 
be given on this subject, which are applicable to every instance, the follow- 
ing general principles and Rules may be noticed. 



1385. — General principles of Latin Arrangement. 

1. The word governed is placed before the word which governs it. 

2. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which it agrees. 
More particularly, 

1386. — Rule 1. The subject is generally put before the verb ; as, 

Deus mundum gubernat. 

Exc. 1. When the subject is closely connected with a clause following 
the verb, it is placed after the verb ; as, erant omriino duo itinera, qui- 
bus, etc. 

Exc. 2. When the subject is emphatic, it usually follows the verb and 
concludes the sentence. 

1387* — Rule II. The adjective or participle most commonly 
follows the substantive with which it agrees. 

^With few exceptions, however, the place of the adjective or participle is 
entirely arbitrary. The following usages may be noticed : 



138S-1392] LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 325 

1st. The adjectives, primus, rnedius, ultimus, extremus, summus, inflmus, 
Imus, supremus, reliquus, ceteris, denoting the first part, the middle 
part, etc., are generally put before the substantive ; as, summus 
mons ; extrlmo libro, "the top of the mountain," etc. 

2d. When the substantive governs another in the genitive, the adjective 
generally precedes both ; as, Duo Platonis praecepta. 

3d. When the substantive is governed by a preposition, the adjective is 
frequently put before the substantive ; as, Hac in quaestione; mag- 
na in parte. 

4th. The adjective is often put before the substantive for the sake of 
Euphony. 

5th. Is, We, hie, iste, are generally placed before the substantive, and, if 
used substantively, are placed before the participle. 

13 88. — Rule III. The r elective is commonly placed after, and as 
near as possible to its antecedent. 

Obs. 1. The relative is commonly the first word of its own clause, and 
when it stands for et itte, et hie, et is, or for these pronouns without et, it is 
always first. Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause precede the 
antecedent and its clause. 

1389. — Rule IV. The governing tvord is generally placed 
after the word governed; as, Carthdginiensium dux — laudis avidus — Ro- 
manorum ditissimus — liostem fudit, etc. Hence, 

Obs. 2. The finite verb is commonly the last in its own clause. To this, 
however, there are many exceptions. 

1390. — Rule V. A.dvevhs are generally introduced before the 
word which they are intended to modify ; as, Leviter aegroianils, Uniter 
curant. — Cic. 

Obs. 3. Ne- quidenij "not even," has always the emphatic word be- 
tween the two particles : ne joco quidem, " not even in jest." 

1391.— Rule VI. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause 
to which they belong ; as, at si dares ;— sed prof 'ecto in omni re fortuna 
domindtur. 

Exc. 1. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are always annexed — the two first, to 
the latter of the two words which they serve to connect ; as, albus crfcrve. 

Cic. Bom malique ; — and the last, to the subject which the question 

chiefly regards ; thus, loquarne? "must I speak V egone loquar? "must 
/speak?" 

Exc. 2. The conjunctions autem, enim, vero, quoque, quidem, are always 
placed after the introductory word of the clause, generally in the second 
place, and sometimes in the third ; etiam, igitur, and iamen, more frequently 
in the second and third place than in the first. 

1392.— Rule VII. Words connected in sense should be as 
close as possible to each other, and the words of one clause should never 
be mixed with those of another. 



326 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. [1393-1399 

1393.— Rule VIII. Circumstances, viz. : the came,— the man- 
ner^ — the instrument, — the time, — the place, etc., are put before the predi- 
cate ; as, 

Eumferro occidi ; — Ego te ob egregiam virtutem semper amavl. 

1394.— Rule IX. The proper name should precede the name of 
rank or profession ; as, Cicero Orator. 

1395. — Rule X. The vocative should either introduce the sen- 
tence, or be placed among the first words ; as, Credo vos, judices. 

1396.— Rule XL When there is an antithesis, the words chiefly 
opposed to each other should be as close together as possible ; as, Appetis 
pecuniam, virtutem abjicis. 

Such an inversion of the order of opposed words in successive clauses, 
is called Chiasmus. 

1397.— Rule XII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words, 
are placed before the principal finite verb, upon which they chiefly depend. 

1398. — Rule XIII. As a general rule, where the case will admit, it 
is proper to proceed from shorter to longer words, and from shorter 
to longer clauses and members of a sentence, as we advance towards the 
close. 

Hence, it will follow, that a sentence should not conclude with a mono- 
syllable when it can be avoided. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

1399. — A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the 
subject and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be anything, 
however expressed, about which we can speak or think. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute 
affirmed of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is 
made ; thus, in the sentence, vita brevis est, the subject is vita ; the predi- 
cate is brevis est, of which brevis is the attribute, and est the copula. In 
most cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one word ; as, equus 
currit, " the horse runs," = eqicus currens est, " the horse is running." 

The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of a sentence. 

The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposition 
with its case, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive mood, or clause of a 
sentence, as an attribute, connected with the subject by a substantive verb 
as a copula ; or it may be a verb which includes in itself both attribute and 
copula, and is therefore called an attributive verb. 



1400-140'2] THE SUBJECT. 827 



THE SUBJECT. 

14:00* — The subject of a preposition is either grammatical or 
logical. 

I. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, 
unlimited by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with 
all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in the sen- 
tence, vir bonus sul similem quaerit, the grammatical subject is vir ; the 
logical, vir bonus. Again : 

II. The subject of a preposition may be either simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, 
as the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, Romulus el Remus fr aires erarU. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

14:01. — A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, or 
described, in various ways ; as, 

1. By a noun in apposition ; as, Cicero orator f actus est consul. 

2. By a noun in the genitive ; as, Ira Del lenta est, 

3. By an adjunct ; as, Be victoria Caesaris fdma perferiur. 

4. By an adjective word, i. e., an adjective, adjective pronoun, or par- 

ticiple ; as, Justitid gaudent virl bonl. — Suns cuique erat locus 
deflnltus — Nescit vox missa reveril. 

5. By a relative and its clause ; as, Vir sapit, qui pauca loquitur. 

Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; and if it has 
none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. 



MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

1402. — Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be 
modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the ways 

in which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 

1 st. By an adjunct ; as, campi ad proelium bonl : liber a delictls. 

2d. By a noun ; as, Major pleiCite : aeger pedibus. 

3d. By an infinitive mood or clause of a sentence, a gerund, or a 
supine ; as, Homo digrius cantdrl — dignus qui imperet — 
dignus ut flgat pdlum in porietem. — Charia utilis scribendd. 
— Monstrum mlrdbile dicta. 

4th. By an adverb ; as, Homo longe dissimilis ; — facile prmccps. 



328 THE PREDICATE. [1403-1405 

3. An adverb may be modified — 

1st. By another adverb ; as, multo magis. 

2d. By a substantive in an oblique case ; as, convenienter naturae ; 
optime omnium ; proxime castrls. 

14:03* — The subject of a proposition may be an infinitive mood, with 
or without a subject ; or a clause of a sentence ; as, humdnum est errdre. 
Incerta pro certls habere stultissimum est. Nunc opus est, te animo valere. 
Rellquum est, ut qfficiis certlmus inter nos. 

THE PREDICATE. 

14Q4:. — I. The Predicate 9 like the subject, is either grammatical 
or logical. 

The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, 
not modified by other words. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or 
phrases that modify it ; thus, vir bonus sui similem quaerit ; the gram- 
matical predicate is quaerit ; the logical, quaerit similem sux. 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logical 
and grammatical are the same. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound. 

A simple predicate affirms but one thing of its subject ; as, vita brevis 
est ; ignis arbor em urit. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates 
affirmed of one subject ; as, Caesar venit, vidit, vicit. Pi*obitas laudatur et 
alget. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

1405. — The grammatical predicate may be modified or lim- 
ited in different ways. 

I. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute ; as, honor 

est praemium virtutis. Invidia est supplicium suum. 

2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute; as, Ira furor 

brevis est. 

II. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is 
modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun as its object ; as, res amicos invenit. Laus 

debetur virtutl. Sapiens imperat cupiditatibus. Venter caret 
auribus. 

2. By adverb ; as, bis dot qui cito dot ; bene scrlbit. 

3. By an adjunct ; as, venii in urbem ; ex urbe venit. 

4. By an infinitive ; as, cupio discere. 

5. By a dependent clause ; as, poeta dlcit iram esse brevem insdniam. — 

Constituit ut ludi fierent. 



1406-1413] COMPOUND SENTENCES. 329 

14:06. — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other words modifying the 
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar.words are when modi- 
fying the subject. 

Infinitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves be 
modified in all respects, as the attributive verb is modified. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

14:07* — A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
tences or propositions connected together. The propositions which make 
up a compound sentence are called members or clauses, 

1408. — The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence are 
either independent or dependent ; in other words, coordinate or subordinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in connec- 
tion with another clause. 

The clause on which another depends is called the leading clause ; its 
subject is the leading subject ; and its predicate, the leading predicate. 

1409* — Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as et, ac, atque, nee, neque, aut, vet, etc. 

1410. — Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with 
their leading clauses in three different ways. 

1. By a relative ; as, vir sapit, qui pauca loquitur, 

2. By a conjunction ; as, loqudces, si sapiat, vitet. 

3. By an adverb ; as, ubi quid datur oiii, illiido chartis ; rogabat cur 

unquam fugisset. 

1411. — A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub- 
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word: as, gaudeo 
te valere. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

1412* — A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple 
one, by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the dependent 
clause into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called an 
abridged proposition ; as, hello confecto discessit, for quum helium 
confectum esset, discessit. Caesar, haec locutus, profectus est, for quum 
Caesar haec locutus esset, profectus est, 

EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 
1413. 1. Vita brevis est 

This is a simple sentence, of which — 
The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is vita. 
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is brevis est, in which 
brevis is the attribute, and est the copula. 



330 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. [1413 

2. Laountur annl. 

This is a simple sentence, of which — 
The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is annl. 
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is labuntur, an attribu- 
tive verb including both the attribute and copula. 

3. Verum decus in virtute podium est. 

This a simple sentence, of which — 
The logical subject is verum decus. 
The logical predicate is in virtute positum est. 
The grammatical subject is decus, qualified by the adjective verum. 
The grammatical predicate is positum est, modified by the adjunct in 
virtute. 

4. Romulus et Remus fraires erant. 
This is a simple sentence, having a compound subject. 
The logical subject is Romulus et Remus, compound, consisting of two 

subjects connected by et. 
The logical predicate is frdires erant. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

5. Probitas laudatur et alget. 
This is a simple sentence with a compound predicate. 
The logical subject is probitas. 
The logical predicate is laudatur et alget, compound, the parts of which 

are connected by et. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

6. Video meliora proboque ; deteriora sequor. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent or coordi- 
nate clauses in juxtaposition. 

The first clause is a simple proposition with a compound predicate, of 
which — 

The logical subject is ego, understood. 

The logical predicate is video meliora proboque. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is video proboque, compound, consisting of 

two predicates connected by que, qualified by the adjective meliora, 

used as a substantive. 

The second clause, deteriora sequor, is a simple proposition, of which — 
The logical subject is ego, understood. 
The logical predicate is deteriora sequor. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is sequor, modified by its object, deteriora, 
used as a substantive. 



1414-1416] DIRECTIONS FOR BKGINNEKS. 831 

7. Quae in terra gignuniur, ad usum hominis omnia creantur. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one leading, and one depend- 
ent clause, connected by quae. 

The leading clause, ad usum hominis omnia creantur, is a simple sen- 
tence, or proposition, of which — 

The logical subject is omnia, restricted by the relative clause quae in 
terra gignuniur. 

The logical predicate is, ad usum hominis creantur. 

The grammatical subject is omnia, used as a substantive, and restricted 
by the relative clause. 

The grammatical predicate is creantur, modified by the adjunct a d usum, 
and that modified by hominis. 

The dependent clause is quae in terra gignuniur, of which — 

The logical subject is the quae, which, being a relative, connects the 

dependent with the leading clause. (1072.) 
The logical predicate is in terra gignuniur. 
The grammatical subject is quae, the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is gignuniur, modified by the adjunct in 
terra. 

CONSTRUING. 

14:14:* — In Latin and English, the general arrangement of a sentence 
is the same, i. e,, the sentence commonly begins with the subject and ends 
with the predicate. But the order of the words in each of these parts is 
usually so different in Latin, from what it is in English, that one of the 
first difficulties a beginner has to encounter with a Latin sentence, is to 
know how u to take it in," or to arrange it in the order of the English. 
Thi3 is technically called construing, or giving the order. To assist in this, 
some advantage may be found by carefully attending to the following 

DIRECTIONS FOR BEGINNERS. 

1415. — Direction 1. As all the other parts of a sentence depend 
upon the two leading parts, namely, the subject or Nominative, and the 
| predicate or Verb ; the first thing to be done with every sentence, is to 
find out these. In order to do this, 

First. Look for the leading verb, which is always in the present, imper- 
fect, perfect, pluperfect, or future, of the indicative, or in the imperative 
mood, and usually at or near the end of the sentence. 

Second. Having found the verb, observe its number and person ; this 
will aid in finding its nominative, which is commonly a noun or pronoun in 
the same number and person with the verb, commonly before it, and near 
the beginning of the sentence, though not always so (1386, with excep- 
tions). 

1416* — Direction 2. Having thus found the nominative and verb, 
and ascertained their meaning, the sentence may be resolved from the 
Latin into the English order, as follows : 



332 RULES FOR CONSTRUING. [141 7, 1418 

1st. Take the Vocative, Exciting, Introductory, or connecting words, if 
there are any. 

2d. The Nominatite. 

3d. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e., words agreeing with it, or 
governed by it, or by one another, where they are found, till you come to 
the verb, 

4th. The Verb. 

5th. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e., words which modify it, are 
governed by it, or depend upon it. 

6th. Supply everywhere the words understood. 

7th. If the sentence be compound, take the parts of it severally as they 
depend one upon another, proceeding with each of them as above. 

14:17* — Direction 3. In arranging the words for translation, in the 
subordinate parts of a sentence, observe the following 

RULES FOR CONSTRUING. 

I. An oblique case, or the infinitive mood, is put after the word that 
governs it. 

Exc. The relative and interrogative are usually put before the govern- 
ing word, unless that be a preposition ; if it is, then after it. 

II. An adjective, if no other word depend upon it, or be coupled with 
it, is put before its substantive ; but if another word depend upon it, or be 
governed by it, it is usually placed after it. 

III. The participle is usually construed after its substantive, or the 
word with which it agrees. 

IY. The relative and its clause should, if possible, come immediately 
after the antecedent. 

V. When a question is asked, the nominative comes after the verb (in 
English, between the auxiliary and the verb). Interrogative words, how- 
ever, such as quis, quotus, quantus, uter (1041), etc., come before the verb. 

VI. After a transitive active verb, look for an accusative ; — and after a 
preposition, for an accusative or ablative ; and arrange the words accordingly. 

VII. Words in apposition must be construed as near together as possible. 

VIII. Adverbs, adverbial phrases, prepositions with their cases, circum- 
stances of time, place, cause, manner, instrument, etc., should be placed, in 
general, after the words which they modify. The case absolute commonly 
before them, and often first in the sentence. 

IX. The words of different clauses must not be mixed together, but 
each clause translated by itself in its order, according to its connection 
with, or dependence upon, those to which it is related. 

X. Conjunctions are to be placed before the last of two words or sen- 
tences connected. 

Example of Resolution. 
14:18. — Etenim omnes artes quae ad humanitatem pertinent habent 
quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quadam inter se conti- 
nentur.-- -Cic. 



1419] 



ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 333 



1. In looking over this sentence, according to Direction First, we find 
the first leading verb to be habent, which must have a plural nominative. 
This leads us at once to artes, as the nominative. The nominative and verb 
being thus found on which the other parts depend, then — 

2. By Direction 2, the general arrangement will be : 

1. Connective word, etenim.. 

2. Nominative, artes. 

3. Words limiting and explaining, omnes, quae ad humdnitatem 

pertinent. 

4. The Verb, habent 

5. Words governed by it, quoddam commune vinculum. 

3. Then by the rules in Direction 3, the words in each of these divisions 
will be arranged thus : 1. Etenim ; 2. and 3. omnes artes (R. II.), quae (R. 
IV.), pertinent ad humdnitatem (R. VIII.) ; 4. habent ; 5. quoddam commune 
vinculum (R. II.). 

By proceeding in the same manner with the next clause, the whole will 
then stand thus : 

Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem, habent quoddam 
commune vinculum, et continentur inter se quasi quadam cognatione ; — 
and may be translated as follows : 

"For all the arts which pertain to liberal knowledge (civilization), have 
a certain common bond, and are connected together as if by a certain affin- 
ity between them.' , 

The pupil will now see, that in the first clause, or simple sentence, the 
grammatical subject is artes ; the logical, omnes artes quae ad humdnita- 
tem pertinent. The grammatical predicate is habent ; the logical, habent 
quoddam commune vinculum (1404, 1) ; and so with the next clause. 

In like manner proceed with every new simple sentence, or with every 
succeeding clause of a compound sentence. 



ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

14:19* — Having arranged and translated a sentence, the next thing 
is to parse it, in doing which, every word should be fully described by its 
accidents, traced to its primitive, if a derivative, — analyzed into its parts 
if compound, and its concord or agreement pointed out. The following 
scheme, with each part of speech, may be useful to the beginner. 

1. Noun. — 1. Kind ; 2. Gender ; 3. Declension ; 4. Decline ; 5. Derived 

I from (if derived) ; 6. It is found in case ; 7. Number ; 8. Is the nomina- 

] tive to , or the predicate nominative after (if the nominative) ; is 

governed by (if governed) ; 9. Rule. 

2. Adjective. — 1. Declension; 2. Decline it; 3. Compare it (if com- 
pared) ; 4. It is found in case ; 5. Number ; 6. Gender ; 7. Agrees with 

; 8. Rule. 

3. Pronoun. — 1. Kind (i. e., personal, relative, or adjective) ; 2. Decline 
it; then — 



334 EXAMPLES OF PARSING. [1420 

If Personal, 3. Person ; 4. Found in case ; 5. Number ; 6. Reason 

of the case ; 7. Rule ; 8. Stands for 

If a Relative pronoun, 3. Found in case ; 4. Number ; 5. Reason of 

the case ; 6. Rule ; 7. Its antecedent ; 8. Rule. 

If an Adjective pronoun ; then, 3. Kind (i. e., possessive, indefinite, 
demonstrative, etc.) ; 4. It is found in case ; 5. Number ; 6. Gen- 
der ; 7. Agrees with ; 8. Rule. 

4. Verb. — 1. Kind, viz. : Transitive or Intransitive ; 2. Conjugation (or 
Irregular, if it is so) ; 3. Conjugate it ; 4. Derived from (if derived) ; 5. 

Compounded of (if compounded) ; 6. It is found in tense ; 7. Mood ; 8. 

Voice; 9. Person; 10. Number; 11. Agrees with as its subject; 12. 

Rule ; 13. Give a Synopsis. 

5. Adverb. — 1. Derived from (if derived) ; 2. Compounded of (if com- 
pounded) ; 3. Compared (if compared) ; 4. It modifies ; 5. Rule. 

6. Preposition. — 1. Governs case ; 2. Rule ; 3. It points out the re- 
lation between and . 

7. Interjection. — 1. Kind; 2. Governs, or is put with the case; 

3. Rule. 

8. Conjunction. — 1. Kind ; 2. Connects ; 3. Rule. 



Example of Parsing by the foregoing Scheme. 

14:20* — The sentence construed (1418) may serve as an example of 
Etymological and Syntactical parsing, and for this purpose we arrange it in 
the order of translation, as above. 

" Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem, habent quoddam 
commune vinculum, et continentur inter se quasi quadam cognatione." 

Etenim, .... Conjunction, causal, connecting the following sentence with 
the preceding, as containing the cause or reason of what is 
there stated. 

omnes, An adjective, third declension, omnis, -is, -e, etc. ; not com- 
pared because incapable of increase, — in the nominative, 
plural, feminine, and agrees with artes (Rule V.), "An ad- 
jective agrees," etc. 

artes, A noun (or substantive), feminine, third declension, ars, artis, 

etc. — in the nominative plural, — the nominative to (or sub- 
ject of), habent. 

quae, Relative pronoun, — in the nominative plural, feminine, nom- 
inative to pertinent, agrees with its antecedent artes, Rule 
VII., and connects its clause with artes, which it restricts. 

pertinent, . . . Verb intransitive, second conjugation, jjertineo, -ere, -ui, 
pertentum ; compounded of per and teneo, — in the present 
indicative, third person plural, and agrees with quae. Rule 
II. " A verb agrees," etc. 

ad, ....... Preposition, governs the accusative, and shows the relation 

between pertinent and humanitatem. 

humanitatem, Noun, feminine, third declension,, humanitas, — atis. etc. 



1420] 



EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 



335 



Abstract, derived from Mmanns (30, 2), in the accusative, 
singular, governed by ad. Rule LXYI. "Twenty-eight 
prepositions," etc. 

habent, Verb transitive, second conjugation, liabeo, -ere, -ui, -Hum, 

— in the present indicative active, third person plural, and 
agrees with artes. Rule II. " A verb agrees," etc. Synopsis. 

quoddam, . . . Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, quaedam, etc., com- 
pounded of qui and the syllable dam, — in the accusative, 
singular, neuter, and agrees with vinculum. Rule V. " An. 
adjective agrees," etc. 

vinculum^ . . . Noun, neuter, second declension, vinculum, -I, etc. — in the 
accusative singular, governed by habent. Rule VIII. " A 
transitive verb in the active voice," etc. 

et, A conjunction, copulative, connecting continentur with habent, 

which are consequently ia the same construction (1370), 
and have the same nominative, artes. 

continentur, . A verb transitive, second conjugation ; contineo, continere, 
continui, contenhtm ; compounded of con and teneo, — in 
the present indicative passive, third person plural, and 
agrees with artes. Rule II. " A verb agrees," etc. Synopsis. 

inter, A preposition which governs the accusative, and here points 

out the relation of reciprocity between the individuals rep- 
resented by se. (1019.) 

se, Substantive pronoun, third person, in the accusative plural, 

feminine, governed by inter. Rule LXVI. " Twenty-eight 
prepositions," etc., refers to artes, the subject of con- 
tinentur, and is here taken reciprocally. (1020.) 

quasi, An adverb of manner modifying continentur. Rule LXXI. 

"Adverbs are joined," etc. 

quddam, . . . Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, quaedam, etc., com- 
pounded of qui and the syllable dam, — in the ablative 
singular, and agrees with cogndtione. Rule V. " An adjec- 
tive agrees," etc. 

coandlione, . . A noun, feminine, third declension, cogndtio, —onis, etc., from 
cogndtus, " related by birth " (from con and nascor), — in 
the ablative of manner, relating to continentur inter se. 
Rule XLII. " The cause, manner," etc. 



PART FOURTH. > 
PROSODY. 

1421.— Prosody 9 in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity 
of syllables, and the construction of verses ; in other words> of Quantity 

and Metre* 



OF QUANTITY. 

14:22* — Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or short 9 a 
long syllable being considered as equal in time to two short ones. When 
a syllable is sometimes long, and sometimes short, it is said to be 
common* 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain established rules / 
or, when no rule applies, — by the authority of the poets. 

3. The rules of quantity are either general or special; the 
former apply alike to all the syllables of a word ; the latter, to particular 
syllables. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1423* — Rule I. A vowel before another vowel is short by Post" 

tion / as, deus y alius, nihil. 

1424* — The letter h, in verse, being considered as only a breathing, is 
wholly disregarded ; hence, such words as nihil, mihi, etc., come under this 
rule. A diphthong before a vowel does not come under this rule, except as 
in Eule V., Exc. 1. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1425* — 1. A is long in aulai, terral, and the like (55): in such prop- 
er names as Cuius: and in the verb aio (443), when two vowels follow a. 

2. E is long after i in the genitive and dative of the fifth declension; as, 
speciel ; not after i, it is generally short. 

E is long in eheu, and such proper names as Pompeius. 

3. I is long in /So, if not before er ; as, flo, fiebam. Also in alius, 
the genitive of alius. (See 192.) 



1426-1431] OBSERVATIONS AND EXCEPTIONS. 337 

I is common in Diana, and genitives in lus ; but is generally short 
in alterius. Genitives in lus, in prose, have I long. 

4. O is common in Ohe. 

5. Greek words vary. As a general rule, when the vowel before another 
represents a long vowel or diphthong in the Greek word, it is long ; 
otherwise it is short : Aeneas, Peneus, Troes, aer, etc. 

14:26* — Rule II. A vowel before two consonants, or a double conso- 
nant, or,;, is long by Position; as, 

drma, fdllo, axis, gdza, major. 

Explanation. — The double consonants under this rule are, the same 
consonant doubled, as, 11, tt, rr, etc., and the letters x and z. Strictly 
speaking, it is the syllable, and not the vowel, which is long under this rule. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

14:27* — 1. It is necessary that one of the consonants should belong 
to the same word as the vowel : in mare, fruitur vita. 

2. But a short vowel at the end of a word usually remains short before 
two consonants at the beginning of the next word : lucente smaragdls. — Ov. 
But a short vowel rarely stands before sc, sm, sp, sq, st. 

3. A vowel before j, is short in compounds of jugum ; as, bijugus. 

1428. — Rule III. A vowel before a mute and a liquid (I, r), is com- 
mon / as, volucris, or volucris. 

Explanation. — Under this rule, the vowel must be naturally 
short, and the mute must come before the liquid, and be in the same 
syllable with it. But if the vowel is naturally long, it remains so ; as, 
mdtris (from fJ-yrnp), salubris, etc. If the mute and the liquid are in dif- 
ferent syllables, the vowel preceding is long by position ; as, dbluo, obruo. 
In Latin words, the liquids which make this tveak position (debilis 
posilio) are I and r only. In Greek words, I, r, m, n : cycnus or cpgnus. 

1429, — Rule IV. A contracted syllable is always long ; as, 

Nil, for nihil ; mi, for mihi ; alius, for alioius ; it, for iit ; sodes, for si 
audes ; nolo, for non volo ; blgae, for bijugae ; scilicet, for scire licet, etc. 

1430. — Rule V. A diphthong is long ; as, Caesar, Aurum, Euboea. 

EXCEPTIONS. . 

1431. — 1. Prae, in composition, before a vowel, is commonly short; 
as, praelre praeustus, etc. 

2. Also, ae is sometimes short in the end of a word, when the next be- 
gins with a vowel ; as, Insula e Ionio, etc. 

Note. — IT, after q and g, does not form a diphthong with a vowel fol- 
lowing it, but has a force similar to the English w ; as, lingua, queror, etc., 
pronounced lingwa, kweror. (See 5.) 

15 



338 INCREMENT OF NOUNS. [1432-1442 



SPECIAL RULES. 

FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

1432. — Rule VI. Preterites of two syllables lengthen the former ; 

as, vent, vidi, vici. 

1433. — Exc. 1. Those which are short by Rule I. ; as, rul, lul, etc. 
Exc. 2. Seven have the first syllable short ; viz. : bibl, dedi, jidi (from 

Jindo), scidi, stetl, stiti, and tull. 

1434. — Rule VII. Preterites which reduplicate, shorten the first 
and second ; as, cecidl, tetigl, pepull, etc., from cado, tango, pello. 
Exc. Cecidl, from caedo, and pepedl, have the second long. 

1435.— Rule VIII. Supines of two syllables lengthen the former ; 

as, cdsum, motum, visum, from cado, rnovco, video. 

1436.— Exc. Ten have the first syllable short; viz. : c^m(from cieo), 
datum, Hum, litum, — quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, — situm, and datum, 
from sisto. 

1437^ — Rule IX. In polysyllables, a, e, and u, are long before turn, 
of the Supine; as, amatum, deletum, indicium. 

1438. — Rule X. In polysyllables, i is short before turn, of the Su- 
pine / as, monitum. I is long in divisum. 

1439. — Exc. But Supines in Hum, from preterites in Ivl, have i 
long ; as, cuplvi, cupitum ; audlvl, auditum, etc. 

1440. — Obs. Recenseo has recensitum, from ui in the preterite, be- 
cause originally from censio, censlvl. Eo and its compounds have i short ; 
as, itum, reditum, etc. Except ambio, ambitum, fourth conjugation. (414.) 

1441. — Rule XI. Participles in rus have u long in the penult; 
as, amdturus, etc. 

INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

1442. — 1. A Noun in the singular number is said to in- 
crease, when any of its cases has more syllables than the nominative 
singular : as, rex, regis ; sermo, sermonis. 

2. With only few exceptions, nouns have but one increase in the singu- 
lar number ; iter, supellex, and compounds of caput ending in ps, have two ; 
as, itineris, supellectilis, praecipitis, from praeceps. 

3. The increment, or increasing syllable, to which the following rules 
apply, is never the last syllable, but the one preceding it, if there is only 
one increment ; or the two preceding it, if there are two. 

4. The rules for the increase of nouns, apply to adjectives and par- 
ticiples. 



1443-1447] EXAMPLES AND EXCEPTIONS. 389 

5. Nouns of the fourth declension have no increment in the singular ; 
those of the first and fifth have none but what come under Rule I. (1423) 
and its exceptions (1425). In the second declension, those only increase in 
the singular which end in r in the nominative, according to the following — 

1£4:3. — Rule. The increment of the second declension is short; as, 

Pueri, virl, saturl, etc., from puer, vir, saiur. 
Exc. But Iber and Celtiber have Iberl and Celtiber l. 



INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1444. — Rule XII. Increments of the third declension have a and o 
long ; e, e, and u, short ; as, 

Pietdtis, honoris, mulieris, lapidis, murmuris. 

Rules with Exceptions. 

1445. — 1. Increments in a, of the third declension, are long. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in a, from masculines in al and ar, is short, 

also from par and its compounds ; — from anas, mas, vds (vadis), bac- 

car, hepar, jubdr, lar, nectar, and sal. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in a, from nouns in s, with a consonant before 
it, is short ; as, Arabs, Arabis. 

Exc. 3d. The increment in a, from Greek nouns in a, -atis, and as, 
-adis, is short ; as, poema, poematis ; lampas, lampadis. 

Exc. 4th. Also, the following in ax ; viz. : anthrax, climax, corax, dro- 
pax, fax, harpax, panax, smilax, and styrax, increase with a short. 

1446. — 2. Increments in o, of the third declension, are long. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in o, from neuter nouns is short ; as, marmor, 

marmoris ; corpus, corporis. But os, oris, and neuter comparatives 

increase in 6 long ; ador has adoris, or adoris. 
Exc. 2d. The increment in o, from nouns in s with a consonant before 

it, is short ; as, scrobs, scrobis ; inops, inopis. But Cercops, Cyclops, 

and Hydrops, have 6 long. 
Exc. 3d. Generally from gentile and Greek nouns in o and on, the in- 
crement is short ; as, Macedo, Macedonis ; but some are long, and 

some are common. 
Exc. 4th. Greek nouns in or, shorten the increment ; as, Hector — oris. 
Exc. 5th. Greek nouns in pus (novr) ; as, tripus, Polypus ; also, arbor, 

memor, bos, compos, impos, and lepus, have o short in the increment ; 

as, tripus, tripodis, etc. 

1447* — 3 - Increments in e, of the third declension, are short. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in -enis from en and o is long; as, Siren, Sl- 

renis ; Anio, Anienis. 
Exc. 2. The increment in e is long, from haeres, locuples, mansues, 

mercts, and quies ; and vlr — from lex, rex, and vervlx — plebs, seps, 

and hdlec. 



340 INCREMENT OF VERBS. [1448-1455 

Exc. 3d. Greek nouns in er and es increase e long ; as, crater, crdteris ; 
magnes, magnetis. 

14:48. — 4. Increments in i, of the third declension, are short. 
Exc. 1st. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in i%, have i long ; as, victrix, 

victricis ; felix, felicis. 

Also, cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodlx, matrix, perdix, phoenix, 
radix, and vibex. 
Exc. 2d. Greek nouns in is and in, with the genitive in Inis, increase 

long ; as, Salamis, Salaminis. 
Exc. 3d. Dis, glis, and lis, with Quiris, and Samnis, increase long. 
1449. — 5. Increments in u, of the third declension, are short. 
Exc. 1st. Genitives in udis, uris, and Utis, from nominatives in us, have 

the increase long ; as, palus, paludis, etc. But Ligus, intercus, and 

pecus, increase with u short. 
Exc. 2d. Eur, frux, lux, and Pollux, have u long. 

1450. — 8. Increments in y are short. 

Exc. Greek nouns, with the genitive in ynis, have the increase long. 
Also, Bornbyx, Ceyx, and gryps, which increase long. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

1451. — A noun in the plural number is said to increase, when it 
has more syllables in any case than in the nominative plural. 

1452. — An increment in the plural can occur only in the genitive, 
dative, and ablative ; and in these it is the syllable next to the last. When 
any of these cases has no more syllables than the nominative, it has no 
plural increment. Thus, sermonum, pueris, capitum, have no plural in- 
crease, because they have no more syllables than sermones, pueri, capita ; 
still, they all have the increment of the singular, because they have more 
syllables than sermo, puer, and caput. But sermonibus, puerorum, and 
capitibus, have both the singular and plural increment. 

1453.— Rule XIII. Plural increments in a, e, and o, are 
long / in i and u, short ; as, 

Musarum, rerum, virorum, partibus, lacubus, 
from Musae, res, viri, paries, lacus. 

1454. — Explanation. — All the increments of the singular remain in 
the plural, and to these the plural increment is added. The rule here given 
applies to the plural increments only, and not to the increments of the sin- 
gular in the plural. Thus, in itineribus, from iter, the second and third 
syllables are increments of the singular, to be found in itineris ; the fourth 
is the plural increment, which comes under this rule. 



INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

1455. — A Verb is said to increase when it has more syllables 
in any part than in the second person singular, of the present indicative, 
active ; as, arnds, amdiis, amdbatis, etc. — A verb in the active voice may 



1456-1459] QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 341 

have three increments, and in the passive four. If there is but one incre- 
ment, it is the syllable next the last. If there are two, the second incre- 
ment is the syllable next the last, and the first the syllable preceding that, 
etc. ; thus, 

1 12 12 3 

a-mas, — am-a-mus, — am-a-ba-mus, — am-av-er-a-mus, etc. 

The increments of deponent verbs are determined in the same manner 
as if they had an active form. 

1456. — Rule XIY. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o are 
long ; i and u short ; as, 

AmdremuSy amdtote ; legimus, possumus. 

Exceptions in A. 

1457. — The first increment of do is short ; as, damus y dabdmus, 
daremus, etc. 

Exceptions in E. 

1458, — 1. E is short before ram, rim y and ro. 

But when contracted, it is long ; as, jleram, for Jleveram. 

2. In the third conjugation, e is short before r in the first increase 
of the present and imperfect ; as, 

Legere, legerem. Act. Legereris, legerere, legere. Pass. 

3. In the first and second conjugations, e is short in — heris and — here. 

Note. — Erunt and ere in the perfect come under the general rule ; some- 
times they are shortened by systole, 1519, 5. 

Exceptions in I. 

1459* — In preterite tenses, i is long before v ; as, 

Andlvl, andlveram, audiverim, etc. 

2. In the first increase of the fourth conjugation, except -imus of the 
perfect, i not before a vowel is always long ; as, 

Pres. venimns ; Perf. venimus. So, also, ibam, and ibo, from eo. 

3. I is long in simm, sitis, velimus, velitis, and their compounds ; as, 
posslmuSy nolimus, etc. 

4. In rimus and ritis of the future perfect indicative, and perfect sub- 
junctive, i is common (335) ; as, 

Dixerimus, or dixervmus ; videritis, or videritis. 

Note. — TJ long before turn of the supine comes under Rules VIII. 
and IX. It is long also in the penult of the perfect participle by the same 
rules, because the perfect participle is always derived from the same stem 
as the supine. 

QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 

For the quantity of penult syllables no definite rule can be given which 
is not rendered nearly useless by the number of exceptions occurring under 



342 QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. [1460-1468 

it. The following observations are usually given rather as a general guide, 
than certain rules ; and they might be easily extended, were it of any prac- 
tical advantage. 

14:60. — Patronymics in ides or ades usually shorten the penult; as, 
Priamides, Atlantiades, etc. Unless they come from nouns in eus ; as, 
Pelides, Tydides, etc. 

14:61. — Patronymics, and similar words, in ais, eis, itis, ois, otis, 
ine, and one, commonly lengthen the penult ; as, 

Achats, Ptolemais, Chryseis, Aerie'is, Memphltis, Ldtois, Icariotis, Nerine, 
Acrisione. Except Thebdis, and Phocdis, short ; and Nereis, which is com- 
mon. — Nereis or Nereis. 

1462. — Adjectives in acus, icus, idus, and imus, for the most part 
shorten the penult ; as, 

Aegyptiacus, academicus, lepidus, legitimus. Also superlatives ; as, for- 
tissimus, etc. Except opticus, amicus^ apricus, pudlcus, mendicus, antlcus, 
posticus, fidus, infidus (from fido), bimus, quadrimus, pair imus, mCdri- 
mus, opimus ; and the two superlatives, Imus and primus ; but perfidies, 
from per and fides, has the penult short. 

1463. — Adjectives in alis, anus, arris, ivus, orus, osus, lengthen 
the penult ; as, 

Dotdlis, urbdnus, avdrus, aestlvus, decorus, arenosus. Except barbarus, 
opiparus. 

1464. — Verbal adjectives in ilis shorten the penult; as, agilis,facilis, 
etc. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen it ; as, 

Ariilis, clvilis, herilis, etc. To these add exilis, subtllis ; and names of 
months, Aprilis, QuinctlUs, Sextilis. Except humilis, parilis, and also 
similis. But all adjectives in tllilis are short ; as, versatilis, voldlilis, um- 
brdiilis, pliedtilis, fluvidtilis, saxdtilis, etc. 

1463. — Adjectives in inus, derived from words denoting inanimate 
things, as plants, stones, etc., also from adverbs of time, commonly shorten 
the penult ; as, 

Amdr acinus, crocinas, cedrirms, fdginus, oledginus ; adamantinus^ crys- 
tallinus, crastinus, pristinus, perendinus, annolinus, etc. 

1466. — Other adjectives in inus are long ; as, 

Agnlnus, canlnus, leporlnus, blnus, trlnus, quinus, austrxnus, clandestinus, 
Latlnus, mar inus, suplnus, vespertlnus, etc. 

1467. — Diminutives in olus, ola, olumj and ulus, ula, ulum, 

always shorten the penult ; as, 

Urceolus, filiola, musaeohem ; lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum, etc. 

1468. — Adverbs in tim lengthen the penult ; as, 
Oppiddtim, viritim, trihutim. Except affatim, perpetim, and statim. 



1489-1477] FINAL SENTENCES. 343 

14:69* — Desideratives in urio shorten the antepenult, which, in the 
second and third persons, is the penult ; as, 

Esurlo, Isurls, isurtt. But other verbs in urio lengthen that syllable ; 
as, ligurio, liguris ; scatario, scaturis, etc. 

1470. — The penult of several words is doubtful; thus, Batavu 
Lucan. Batdvi. Juv. and Mart. Fortuitus. Hor. Fortuitus. Martial. 
Some make fortuitus of three syllables, in order to explain this apparent 
variation. Patrimus, matrimus, etc., are by some lengthened, and by 
some shortened ; but for their quantity there is no certain authority. 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 

A final. 

14=71* — Rule XV. A, in the end of a word, declined by cases 9 is 
short; as, Musa, templa, etc. 

Exc. 1. The ablative of the first declension is long ; as, Musa, etc. 

Exc. 2. The vocative of Greek nouns in as, is long ; as, O Aenla, O 
Pall a. 

1472. — Rule XVI. A, in the end of a word not declined by 

cases, is long ; as, ama, frustra, erga, intra, etc. 
Exc. — Ita, quia, eja, puta (adv.), are short. 

E final 

1473. — Rule XYII. B final is short; as, nate, sedlle, ipse, posse, 
nempe, ante. 

Special Rules and Exceptions. 
1474.—Rvle 1. Monosyllables in e are long; as, me, te, si. 
Exc— The enclitics que, ve, ne, are short ; also, pie, ce, te. 

1475.— Rule 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declensions have 
final e long ; as, Calliope, Ancluse, die, etc. 

Also Greek neuter plurals ; as, Cite, mele, Tempi, etc. 

1476.— Rule 3. Verbs of the second conjugation have e long 
in the second person singular .of the imperative active; as, docl, mane, etc. 
But cave is sometimes short. 

1477.— Rule 4. Adverbs, from adjectives of the first and second 
declensions, have final e long ; as, placide, pulchre, valde (contracted for 
validl). So, also, ferme, fere, and ohe. 

Exc. But, bene, male, inferne, and superne, are short. 



344 RULES AND EXCEPTIONS. [1478-1484 

I final. 

Jf47<9.— Rule XVIII. I final is long; as, domini, fill, etc. 

Exc. 1. I final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. Sometimes cui, 
as a dissyllable, has i short. Slcuti, sicubi, and necubi, are always short. 

Exc. 2. Nisi and quasi are short. 

Exc. 3. I final is short in Greek vocatives and datives ; as, Alexi, 
Daphni ; Palladi, Troasi. 

final. 

14:79.— Rule XIX. O final is common; as, F^o, amo, 
quando. 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long ; as, 0, do, s£<>, jt?ro. 

Exc. 2. The dative and ablative in o are £oii# / as, &oro, domino. 
Also Greek nouns in o / as, Dido, Sappho. 

Exc. a. Ablatives used as adverbs have o long ; as, certo, /also, paulo ; 
quo, eo, and their compounds ; illo, idcirco, citro, retro, uliro, ergo (for the 
sake of). 

Exc. 4. Ego, scio, the defective verb cedo ; also homo, cito, illico, immo, 
duo, octo, ambo, modo, and its compounds : quomodo, dummodo, pcstmodo, 
are almost always short. 

U and Y final. 
14:80,— Rule XX. U final is long ; y final is short; as, 

vulta, Moly. 

B, D, L, M, R, T, final. 
1481* — Rule XXI. B, d, 1, r, and t, in the end of a word are 
sllOVt ; as, ad, apud, semel, consul, pater, caput. 

Explanation. — This Rule does not apply, if any of these final letters 
are preceded by a diphthong, or if the syllable is contracted, or made long 
by position ; as, aut, ablt, for abiit, amdnt. 

EXCEPTIONS. 
1482* — Exc. 1. Sal, sol, and nil are long. 

Exc. 2. Air and aether have the final syllable long. Also nouns in er, 
which have eris in the genitive ; as, Crater, Iber, etc. 

Exc. 3. Ear, lar, nar, par, cur, fur, are long. 

1483 \ — Obs. M final anciently made the preceding vowel short; 
as, Mililum octo. By later poets it is usually cut off, by Ecthlipsis (1519, 
2), when the next word begins with a vowel. When not so cut off, it is 
short. 

C, N, final. 

1484* — Rule XXII. O and n in the end of a word are long ; as, 
sic, illuc, en, non, etc. 

Exc. 1. Nee and donee are short ; hie and fac, common. 

Exc. 2. Forsitan, in, forsan, tamen, an, viden, are short. 



1485-1487] QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES, ETC. 345 

Exc. 3. En, having inis in the genitive is short ; as, carmen, carminis. 
Also Greek nouns in an, on, in, yn, originally short, and the dative plural 
in sin, have the final syllable short ; as, I lion, Eration, Maian, Alexin, 
chelyn, Troasin, etc. 

As,' Es, Os, final, 

14:85* — Rule XXHL As r es, os, in the end of a word are long ; 
as, mas, quits, bonds. 

Exc. 1. As is short in anas, and Greek nouns which have adis or ados 
in the genitive ; as, Areas, lampas, etc. 

Exc. 2. Es is short: 1st, in nouns and adjectives which increase short 
in the genitive ; as, hospes, limes, hebes. But Ceres, paries, arils, abies, and 
pes, with its compounds, are long. 2d. Es, from sum, and penes are short. 
3d. Greek neuters in es, and nominatives and vocatives of the third declen- 
sion which increase in the genitive otherwise than in eos, have es short ; as 
Arcades, Trues, etc. 

Exc. 3. Os is short in compos, impos, os (ossis), — in Greek words of the 
second declension, and in neuters and genitives of the third : as, Mas, Ty- 
ros chaos, epos, Pallados, etc. 

Is, Us, Ys, final. 

1486. — Rule XXIV. Is, us, and ys, in the end of a word are 
short ; as, Turr'xs, legis, legimus, Capys. 

Exc. 1. Plural cases in is and us are long ; but the dative and 
ablative in bus are short, 

Exc. 2. Nouns in is with the genitive in itis, mis, or entis are long ; 
as, Samnls, Salamis, Simois. 

Exc. 3. Is is long in glis, vis, gratis, /oris. And in the second person 
singular, present indicative, active, of the fourth conjugation ; as, audls. 
Also in fis, is (from eo), sis, vis, veils, and their compounds, possis, quam- 
vls, malls, noils, etc. 

Exc. 4. Monosyllables in us are long ; as, grus, sus, etc. 

Also words which have uris, udis, utis, untis, or odis, in the genitive ; 
as, iellus, incus, virtus, Amathus, tripus. To these add Greek genitives in 
us ; as, Dldas, Sapphus, etc. 

Exc. 5. Tethys is sometimes loDg, likewise nouns in ys, which have 
also yn in the nominative ; as, Phorcys or Phorcyn. 

QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES AND COM- 
POUNDS. 

1487.— Rule XXV. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primatives ; as, 

Amicus, from amo. Decoro, from decus, -oris. 

exul, -ulis. 
paveo. 



Auctionor, 
Auctoro, 


auctio, -onis. 
auctor, -oris. 

15* 


Exulo, 
Pavidus, 



346 



SPECIAL EULES. 



[1488-1493 



Auditor, 

Auspicor, 

Cauponor, 

Competitor, 

Cornicor, 

Custodio, 

Decorus, 



auditum. 
auspex, -icis. 
caupo, -Gnis. 
competitum. 
cornlx, -Icis. 
custos, -odis. 
decor, -oris. 



Quirito, 
Radicitus, 
Sospito, 
Nattira, . 
Maternus, 
Legebam, etc., 
Legeram, etc., 



Quirls, -itis. 

radix, -Icis. 

sospes, -itis. 

natus. 

mater. 

lego. 

legl. 



EXCEPTIONS. 
14:88. 1. Long from Short. 

DenL, from decern. Semen sero. Mobilis, from moveo. 

Fomes, foveo. Sedes, sedeo. Humor, humus. 

Htimanus, homo. Secius, secus. Jumentum, juvo. 

Regula, rego. Vox, vocis, voco, etc. 

2. Short from Long. 

Arena, from areo. Sopor, from sopio. 

Vadum, vado. Lucerna, luceo. 

Fides, f Ido. Quasillus, quaius, etc. 

Note. — This Rule applies to all those parts of the verb derived or formed 
from the primary parts, i. e., the quantity of the primary part remains in 
all the parts formed from it. 

1489.— Rule XXYI. Compounds follow the quantity of the 
simple words which compose them ; as, 

adamo, from ad and amo ; dediico, from de and duco. 

1400. — Obs. 1. The change of a vowel or diphthong, in forming the 
compound, does not alter its quantity ; as, cado, concido ; caedo, concido ; 
claudo, recludo ; aequics, imquus, etc. 

1491. — Obs. 2. When a short syllable in the first part of the com- 
pound ends with a consonant, it becomes long by position when joined to 
another word beginning with a consonant ; as, permanco, from per and 
maneo ; but if the second word begin with a vowel, the first retains its 
quantity ; as, perambulo, from per and ambulo. 

1492. — Obs. 3. When the second part of a compound word begins 
with a vowel, the vowel ending the first part is short by Rule I. When it 
begins with two consonants, or a double consonant, the vowel preceding is 
long by Rule II. But if it begins with a simple consonant, followed by a 
vowel or diphthong, the vowel preceding is sometimes long and sometimes 
short, by the following 



Special Rides for the first part of a Compound, ending 
ivith a Vowel. 

149S. — Ride 1. The first part of a compound, if a preposi- 
tion of one syllable, lias the final vowel long; as, dccido, protendo. 



I 1494-1498] exceptions, 347 

Exc. 1. Pro is short in procella, prof anus, profarl, profecto, profestus, 
proficiscor, profiieor, profugio, profugus, profundus, pronepos, proneplis, 
and protervus. It is common in procuro, prof undo, propago, propello, 
proplno. 

Exc. 2. The Greek pro (before), is always short ; proplilta, prologus. 
Note. — The final vowel of a preposition of more than one syllable, re- 
tains its own quantity ; as, contradlco, antecedo. 

14:9 4:* — Rule 2. The inseparable prepositions, se and di, are 

long ; re is short ; as, Sepono, divello, repello. 

Exc. 3. Di (for dis) is short in dirimo and disertus. Re is long in refert. 

1495. — Rule 3. The first part of a compound, not a preposi- 
tion, has final a long ; e, i, o, u, and y, short ; as, 

Malo, nefas, biceps, philosophus, ducentl, Polyddrus. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

149 G. — Exc. 1. A — In quasi, eadem, not in the ablative, and in some 
Greek compounds, a is short. 

Exc. 2. E — The e is long in nemo, nequam, nequando, riequaquam, 
nequidquam, nequis, nequitia ; memet, mecum, tecum, secum, vecors, vesanus, 
veneficus. Also in words compounded with se for sex, or semi ; as, sedecim, 
semestris, etc. E is common in some compounds of facio ; as, liquefacio, 
patefacio, rdrefacio, etc. 

Exc. 3. I — When the first part of a compound is declined, i is long ; 
as, quidam, quilibet, reipublrcae, etc., or when the first can be separated 
from the last, and yet both retain their form and meaning ; as, ludl-magis- 
ter, lucrl-facio, sT-quis, agri-cultura, etc. 

I is sometimes made long by contraction ; as, blgae, scilicet, blmus, etc., 
for bijugae, scire licet, bis annus, or blennius. It is also long in idem 
(masculine), ubique, utrobique, ibidem, nimlrum, and the compounds of 
dies, such as biduum, pridie ; meridies, etc. In ubicunque and ubivis it is 
common. 

Exc. 4. O — Contra, intro, retro, and quando, in compounds, have the 
final o long; as, coniroversia, introduco, retrocedo, quandoque (except quan- 
doquidem). 

O is long in compounds of quo ; as, quomodo, quocunque, quominus, 
quocircd, quovis, quoque (from quisque) ; but in quoque, the conjunction, it 
is short. 

Exc. 5. U — Jupiter, judex, and judicium, have u long ; also usucapio 
and usuvenio, being capable of separation, as in Exc. 3. 

1497* — Rule XXVII. The last syllable of every verse is common. 

Explanation. — This means that a short syllable at the end of a line, 
if the verse requires it, is considered long ; and* a long syllable, if the verse 
requires it, is considered short. 

1498. — N. B. A syllable which does not come under any of the pre- 
ceding rules, is said to be long, or short, by " authority," viz.: of 

the poets. 



348 



VERSIFICATION. 



[1499-1503 



VERSIFICATION. 

1499 . — A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables, 
disposed according to rule. The parts into which a verse is divided are 
called Feet 

FEET. 

1500. — A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, 
strictly regulated by time, and is either simple or compound. The 

simple feet are twelve in number, of which four consists of two, and eight 
of three syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. 
These varieties are as follows : 



1501. — Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrrhic 






-• w 


as Deus. 


Spondee 









as fundfint. 


Iambus 






— ' — 


as erant. 


Trochee 






— w 


as arma. 


1502. 


— Simple feet of three 


Syllables. 


Tribrach 






w w 


as facere. 


Molosus 




N < __ 





as contendunt. 


Dactyl 






W W 


as corpora. 


Anapaest 




V—- 




as domini. 


Bacchlus 









as dolores. 


Antibacchlus 




s_ 


as RSmanus. 


Amphibrach 




— w 


as hon<5re. 


Amphimacer 




w 


as charitas. 


1503.- 


-Compound feet of four Syllables. 


Choriambus 


— 


^ w 


pontifices 


Trochee and Iambus. 


Antispastus 


^ 


v_. 


amabatis 


Iambus and Trochee. 


Ionic a majore 


— 


W W 


calcaribus 


Spondee and Pyrrhic. 


Ionic a minore 


^ 


<^> 


properabant 


Pyrrhic and Spondee. 


First Paeon 


— 


w w w 


temporibus 


Trochee and Pyrrhic. 


Second Paeon 


— 


w ^ 


potentia 


Iambus and Pyrrhic. 


Third Paeon 


>-^ 


^ — w 


animatus 


Pyrrhic and Trochee. 


Fourth Paeon 


w 


w ^ — 


celeritas 


Pyrrhic and Iambus. 


First Epitrite 


w 





volfiptates 


Iambus and Spondee. 


Second Epitrite 


— 


w 


conditores 


Trochee and Spondee. 


Third Epitrite 


— 


w 


dlscordias 


Spondee and Iambus. 


Fourth Epitrite 


— 


W 


adduxistis 


Spondee and Trochee. 


Proceleusmaticus 


w 


W VwX W 


hominibus 


Two Pyrrhics. 


Dispondee 


— 





oratores 


Two Spondees. 


Diiambus 


^—^ 


v^ 


am aver ant 


Two Iambi. 


Ditrochee 


— 


w w 


Cantilena 


Two Trochees. 



1504-1506] 



ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 



349 



ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 

1504:. — 1. In every foot, a long syllable is equal in time to two short 
ones. To constitute feet Isochronous, two things are necessary : 1st. That 
they have the same time. 2d. That they be interchangeable in metre. 

2. Feet have the same time which are measured by an equal number 
of short syllables ; thus, the Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Proceleus- 
maticus, have the same time, each being equal to four short syllables. 

3. Feet are interchangeable in metre, when the ictus or stress of the 
voice falls, or may fall, on the same portion of the foot. The part of the 
foot that receives the ictus, is called arsis, or elevation ; the rest of the 
foot is termed thesis, or depression. 

4. The natural place of the arsis is the long syllable of the foot. Hence, 
in the Iambus, it falls on the second syllable, and in the Trochee, on the 
first. Its place in the Spondee and Tribrach cannot be determined by the 
feet themselves, each Syllable being of the same length. 

5. In all kinds of verse, the fundamental foot determines the place of 
the arsis for the other feet admitted into it ; thus, in Dactylic verse, and 
Trochaic verse, the Spondee will have the arsis on the first syllable ; — in 
Anapaestic and Iambic, on the last. In Trochaic verse the tribrach will 
have the arsis on the first syllable, w'w w, in Iambic, on the second, 

6. Those feet, then, according to the ancients, were called isochronous, 
which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal in time, 
so that a short syllable should correspond to a short; and a long to a 
long, or to two short ; thus, in Iambic and Trochaic verse, 



Iambus ^ 

Tribrach w 

In Dactylic and Anapaestic ; thus, 
Dactyl — 

Spondee — 



Trochee — 

Tribrach w w 

Anapaest w w 

Spondee — 



1505. — But feet which cannot be divided in this manner are not 
isochronous, though they have the same time ; thus, the Iambus and Trochee, 
though equal in time, cannot be divided so as to have the corresponding 
parts of equal length ; thus, 

Iambus, w 

Trochee, — 

1506.— Hence these feet are not interchangeable, or isochronous; 
and for this reason, a Trochee is never admitted into Iambic verse, nor an 

Iambus into Trochaic. The same is true of the Spondee ( ) and 

Amphibrach (^ — ^)> and of the Amphibrach with the Dactyl or 
Anapaest. 



350 OF METKE. [1507 



OF METRE. 

1507 • — X. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of sylla- 
bles and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and, in this sense, applies, 
not only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number of 
verses. A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet (some- 
times called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only. 

The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former refers 
to the time only, in regard to which, two short syllables are equivalent to 
one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the order of the syllables. 
The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the same ; the metre different. 
The term rhythm is also understood in a more comprehensive sense, and is 
applied to the harmonious construction and enunciation of feet and words 
in connection ; thus, a line has rhythm when it contains any number of 
metres of equal time, without regard to their order. Metre requires a certain 
number of metres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 

Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 

there is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in respect of 
time) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canon for 
Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl "in the fifth, and a spondee 
in the sixth place. Change the order thus, 

Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is destroyed ; 
it is no longer an Hexameter heroic line. 

2. The principal metres used in Latin poetry are six ; namely, 1. Iambic. 
2. Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic, 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Ionic. These 
are so called from the foot which prevails in them. 

These different kinds of verse, in certain varieties, are also designated 
by the names of certain poets, who either invented them, or made special 
use of them in their writings. Thus, we have Asclepiadic, Glyconian, 
Alcaic, Sapphic, Pherecratian, etc., from Asclepiades, Glycon, Alcaeus, 
Sappho, Pherecrates, etc. 

3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verse, a metre consists of two 
feet (sometimes called a dipodia, or syzygy), in the other kinds, of one foot. 

4. A verse consisting of one metre is called Monometer ; of two metres, 
Dimeter ; of three, Trimeter ; of four, Tetrameter ; of five, Pentameter ; 
of six, Hexameter ; of seven, Heptameter ; etc. In Trochaic, Iambic, and 
Anapaestic verse, a monometer contains two feet ; a dimeter, four ; a tri- 
meter, six ; etc. In the other kinds of verse, a monometer contains one 
foot ; a dimeter, two ; a trimeter, three ; etc. 

5. A verse or line of any metre may be complete, having precisely the 
number of feet or syllables that the canon requires ; or it may be deficient ; 
or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is variously character- 
ized as follows : 

(1) Acatalectic, when complete. 

(2) Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

(3) Br achy catalectic, if wanting two syllables, or a foot. 



1508-1510] THE CAESUEAL PAUSE. 351 

(4) Hypercatalectic, or hypermeter, when it has one or two syllables 
more than the verse requires. 

(5) Acephalous, when a syllable is wanting at the beginning of the line. 

(6) Asynartete, when different measures are conjoined in one line. 

Hence, in order fully to describe any verse, three terms are employed : 
the first expressing the kind of verse ; the second, the number of metres ; 
and the third, the character of the line ; thus, 

Non vul- | tus in- || stantis | tyran- | nl | 
is described ; as, Iambic, dimeter, hypercatalectic. 

6. Verses, or parts of verses, are further designated by a term expres- 
sive of the number of feet, or parts of feet, which they contain. Thus, 
a line, or a part of a line, containing — 

three half feet is called triemimer. 
five half feet, " penihemimer. 
seven half feet " hepthihemimer. 

These are of use to point out the place of — 



THE CAESURAL PAUSE. 

ISO 8. — Caesura, in metre, is the separation, by the ending of a 
word, of syllables rhythmically connected. 

It is of three kinds : 1. Of the foot ; 2. of the rhythm; 3. of the verse. 

1st. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is com- 
pleted ; as in the second, third, fourth, and fifth feet of the following line : 

Silves- | trem tenu- | I Mti- | sam medi | taris a- | vena. 

2d. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the 
thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and fourth feet of 
the preceding line. 

This has sometimes the effect of making a final short syllable long, by 
the force of the ictus ; as, 

Pectori- | bus inhi- | ans spi- | rantia | consulit | exta. 

Note. — This effect is not produced by the Caesura of the foot, nor of 
the verse, unless they happen to coincide with the caesura of the rhythm. 

3. The Caesura of the verse is such a division of the line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a pause or rest, at a proper or fixed place, 
without injuring the sense by pausing in the middle of a word. 

1509. — The proper management of this pause is a great beauty in 
certain kinds of verse, and shows the skill of the poet. In pentameter verse 
its place is fixed ; in hexameter and other metres, it is left to the poet. 
When it occurs at the end of the third half foot, it is called trieiriimeris ; 
of the fifth, pentheniimeris ; of the seventh, heptheminieris. 

IS 10. — The situation of each foot in a verse is called its place. 



352 DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. [1511, 1512 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

The canons, or rules of the different kinds of metre used in Latin poetry, 
are the following : 

1. IAMBIC METRE. 
1511* — 1. A pure iambic line consists of iambic feet only ; as, 
Phase- | lus II- | le quern | vide fl tis hos- | pites. | 

Here the single-line marks the end of the foot ; the double line, the end 
of the metre ; and the Italic syllable, the caesural pause. 

2. A mixed, iambic line admits a spondee into the first, third, and 
fifth places ; and again in the first and third a dactyl and in the first an ana- 
paest is sometimes admitted for a spondee, and a tribrach for the iambus. 

3. This verse occurs in all varieties of length, from the dimeter catalec- 
tic to the tetrameter. 

4. The caesura commonly takes place at the fifth half foot. 

5. Different varieties of this metre are denominated as follows : 

1st. Senarian, or Trimeter acatalectic, used in tragedy and comedy. 
2d. Archilochian, or Trimeter catalectic. 
3d. Archilochian, or Dimeter hypermeter. 
4th. Anacreontic, or Dimeter catalectic. 

5th. Galliambus, or Dimeter catalectic, double ; I. e., two verses 

in one line. 
6th. Hipp5nactic, or Tetrameter catalectic. 
7th. Cholianibus, or Trimeter acatalectic. This is called, also, Scazon 

and Hipponactic trimeter, and has a spondee in the sixth place, and 

generally an iambus in the fifth. 

8th. Octonarius, or Tetrameter acatalectic, called also quadratic. 
9th. Acephalous, or Dimeter, wanting the first syllable of the first 
foot. This may be resolved into Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 

II. TROCHAIC METRE. 

1512* — 1. A pu re trochaic line consists of trochees only. These, 
however, are but seldom used. An acephalous trochaic becomes an iambic 
line ; and an acephalous iambic becomes a trochaic line. 

2. A mixed trochaic line admits a spondee, a dactyl, an anapaest, 
and sometimes a proceleusmatic in even places, *. e., in the 2d, 4th, 6th, 
etc. But in the odd places, a trochee, or a tribrach, and in the last place, 
a trochee only. 

3. This verse may be used in all varieties, from the Monometer hyper- 
catalectic (two trochees and one syllable) to the tetrameter, or octonarius 
catalectic. The varieties most used by the Latin poets are, 

1st. The Trochaic tetrameter catalectic, rarely pure. 



1513, 1514] DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 353 

2d. The Sapphic, consisting of five feet, viz. : a trochee, a spondee, a 
dactyl, and two trochees. It has the caesural pause after the fifth 
half foot; thus, 

Inte- | ger vl- | tae || scele- | risque | purus. — Hor. 

3d. The Phalaecian, consisting of five feet, viz. : a spondee, a dactyl, 
and three trochees ; thus, 

Non est | vivere | sed va- | lere | vita. — Mart. 

This verse neither requires nor rejects a caesura. 

4th. The Trochaic dimeter catalectic, or Acephalous iambic dimeter. 
See I. 9th. 

5th. Other varieties, but seldom used, are : 1. The Pancratic, monome- 
ter hypercatalectic. 2. The Ithyphallic, dimeter brachycatalectic. 
3. The Euripidean, dimeter catalectic. 4. The Alcmanic, dimeter 
acatalectic. 5. Anacreontic, dimeter acatalectic, with a pyrrhic in 
the first place. 6. The Hipponactic, tetrameter acatalectic. 



III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. 

151S* — 1. A pure Anapaestic line consists of Anapaests only. 

2. The mixed anapaestic line has a spondee or a dactyl, feet of equal 
length, in any place. 

3. The following varieties occur, viz. : 1st. The Anapaestic Monometer, 
consisting of two anapaests. 2d. The Anapaestic dimeter, consisting of 
four Anapaests. 

Obs. Anapaestic verses are usually so constructed, that each measure 
ends with a word, so that they may be. read in lines of one, two, or more 
measures. 

4. Other varieties not much in use are the Simodian ; monometer cata- 
lectic. The Partheniac ; dimeter catalectic. The Archebulian ; trimeter 
brachycatalectic. 

IV. DACTYLIC METRE. 

1514:. — 1. A pure dactylic verse consists of dactyls only, which 
have the arsis on the first syllable of the foot. 

Of this verse, one foot constitutes a metre, and the lines range in length 
from dimeter to hexameter. Of these, the most important are — 

1. Hexameter or Heroic verse. 

Hexameter or Heroic verse consists of six feet, of which the fifth is 
a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of the other four, a dactyl or a 
spondee; as, 

Ludere | quae vel- | lem cala- | mo per- | misit a- | grestl. — Virg. 
Respecting this verse, the following things may be noticed : 



354 DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. [1514 

1st. When a spondee occurs in the fifth place, the line is called spondaic. 
Such lines are of a grave character, and but rarely occur. 

2d. When the line consists of dactyls, the movement is brisk and rapid ; 
when of spondees, slow and heavy. Compare in this respect the two fol- 
lowing lines : the first expresses the rapid movement over the plain, of a 
troop of horse eager for the combat ; — the other describes the slow and 
toilsome movements of the Cyclops at the labors of the forge. 

Quadrupe | dante pu- | trem soni- j tu quatit | ungula | campum. 
Illi in- | ter se- | se mag- | na vl | brachia | tollunt. — Vina. 

3d. The beauty and harmony of a Hexameter verse depend on the prop- 
er management of the caesura. The most approved caesural pause, in 
heroic poetry, is that which occurs after the arsis of the third foot — some- 
times called the heroic caesural pause ; thus, 

At domus | interi- j Or || re- | gall | splendida | luxii. — Virg. 

In reading this line with due attention to quantity, we naturally pause 
where the caesural pause is indicated by the double line, and the whole 
movement is graceful and pleasing. Compare now with this, a line in 
which no attention is paid to the caesura, or in which, if one is made, you 
have to pause in the middle of a word, and the difference is manifest. 

Roma | moenia | ter- 1| ruifc | Impiger | Hannibal | armis. 

Sometimes the caesura falls after the thesis of the third foot, or the arsis 
of the fourth. In the last case, a secondary one often occurs in the second 
foot. The pause at the end of the third foot was the least approved. The 
following lines are examples of each of these : 

1. Infan- | dum re- | gina || ju- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. 

2. Prima te- | net, || plaii- | suque vo- | lat || fremi- | tuque se- | cundo. 

3. Cui non | dictus Hy- j las puer || et La- | tonia j Delos. 

When a pause occurs between the fourth and fifth feet, it is called the 
JBllcolic caesura, from its use in pastoral poetry : 

Ingen | tern | coe | 16 | soni | turn dedit ; || inde se | cutus. — Virg. 

2. A species of Hexameter is the Priapean. It is divisible into 
two portions of three feet each, of which portions the first begins generally 
with a trochee, and ends with an amphimacer, and the second begins with a 
trochee ; as follows : 

co- | Ionia | quae cupis || ponte ] luclere | longo. — Catull. 

These parts, however, may very well be scanned, the first as a Glyconic, 
and the second as a Pherecratic verse, of which see under (V) Choriambic 
verse. 

3. Pentameter verse consists of five feet. It is commonly ar- 
ranged in two portions or hemistichs, of which the first contains two feet, 
dactyls or spondees, followed by a long syllable which ought to end a word ; 
and the second, two dactyls followed by a long syllable ; thus, 



1515] DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 355 

Maxima ] de nihi- | lo || nascitur | hlstori- | a. — Propert. 
Pomaque | non no- | tis || legit ab | arbon- | bus. — Tirull. 

When the first distich does not end a word, or if there be an elision by 
Synalaepha or Echthlipsis, the verse is considered harsh. 

This verse is commonly used alternately with a hexameter line, a com- 
bination which is commoiily called Elegiac verse. 

4. Dactylic tetrameter 9 of which there are two kinds. 

1st. Dactylic tetrameter a priore, called also Alcmanian dactylic tetra- 
meter, which consists of the first four feet of a hexameter line, the fourth 
being always a dactyl ; as, 

. m Solvitur | acris hi- | ems gra- | ta vice. — Hor. 

2d. Dactylic tetrameter a posterior e, called also Spondaic tetrameter, 
which consists of the last four feet of a hexameter line ; as, 

Sic trls- | tes af- | fatus a- | micos. — Hor. 

5. Dactylic trimeter (or Choriambic Trimeter Cataleclic), con- 
sists of the last three feet of a hexameter line (see Choriambic verse) ; as, 

Grato j Pyrrha sub | antro.—HoR. 

6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, also called Archilochian penthemi- 
meris, consists of the first five half feet of a hexameter line ; as, 

Arbori- | busque co- | mae. — Hor. 

7. Dactylic dimeter, or Adonic — commonly used to conclude a Sap- 
phic Stanza — consists of a dactyl and spondee ; thus, 

m Risit A- | pollO. 
i 

V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. 

1515. In Choriambic verse, the leading foot is a choriambus ; 

but in the varieties of this metre, different other feet are admitted, chiefly 
j at the beginning or end of the line, or both. The principal varieties are 
| the following: 

1. The Choriambic tetrameter consists of a spondee, three 
choriambi, and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne | quaesieris | scire nefas \ quern mihi quern | tibi. 

2. Choriambic tetrameter consists of three choriambi, or feet equivalent 
in length, and a Bacchius ; as, 

Jane pater | Jane tuens | dive biceps | bifOrmis. 

Horace altered without improving this metre, by substituting a spondee 
for the iambus in the first foot ; as, 

Te deos o- | ro Sybarin, | etc. 



356 DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. [1515 

Note. — Choriambic tetrameter was originally called Phalaecian, from 
Phalaecus, who made great use of it. 

3. JLsclepiadic tetrameter consists of a spondee, two choriambi, 
and an iambus ; thus, 

Maece | nas atavis | edite re- | gibus. — Hon. 

This form is uniformly used by Horace. Other poets sometimes make 
the first foot a dactyl. 

The caesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 

This verse is sometimes scanned as a Dactylic pentameter catalectic ; 
thus, 

Maece- | nas ata- | vis | gdite | re gibus. 

4. Choriambic trimeter, or Gly conic, consists of a spondee 
(sometimes an iambus or trochee), a choriambus, and an iambus ; as, 

Sic te | diva potens | Cyprl. — Hor. 

When the first foot is a spondee, it may be scanned as dactylic trime- 
ter; as, 

Sic te | diva po- | tSns Cypri. 

5. Choriambic trimeter catalectic, or PJierecratlC, consists of a spon- 
dee, choriambus, and a catalectic syllable ; as, 

Grato | Pyrrha sub an- | tro. 

Here, also, the first foot is sometimes a trochee or an iambus. When 
a spondee, it may be scanned as Dactylic trimeter. See IV. 5. 

6. Choriambic dimeter consists of a choriambus and a Bac- 
chius; as, 

Lydia die | per omnes. — Hor. 

VI. IONIC METRE. 

1310* — 1. The Ionic a majore, or Sotadic metre, consists of three 
Ionics a majore, and a spondee ; as, 

Has cum gemi- | na compede ] dedicat ca- | tenas. 

Obs. — In this metre, an Ionic foot is often changed for a ditrochee, as 
in the third foot of the preceding line ; and a long syllable is often resolved 
into two short ones. 

2. The Ionic a mindre consists generally of three or four feet, which are 
all Ionics a minore ; as, 

Puer ales | tibi tells | operosae- | que Minervae. — Hor. 



1517-1519] 



SCANNING. 



357 



COMPOUND METRES. 

1517.— A. compound metre, or Asynartete, is the union of two 
kinds of metre in the same verse or line. Of these the following are the 
chief: 

1. Greater Alcaic. Iambic mon. hyper. + Chor. dim. acat. 






Thus, w - 

2. Lesser Alcaic. Dactylic dem. + Trochaic mon. 

3. Archilochian Hept. or Dact. tetr. a priore 4- Troch. dim. brachyc. 



Thus, — — ^ 




=/J~|- 






\-i 


4. Dactylico-Iambic. Dactylic trim. cat. + Iambic dim. 




Thus, — — w 




A|3~ 




— 


**~* — — 


5. lambico-Dadylic. Iambic dim. + Dactyl trim. cat. 




Thus, —* ■ 


_|^_ 


~_|^- 


-1-" 


l~\. 


-WW 



SCANNING. 

IS 18, — Scanning is the measuring of verse, or the resolving of a 
line into the several feet of which it is composed. 

To do this properly, a previous acquaintance with the rules of quantity, 
and the structure of each kind of verse, is indispensable, — and also with 
the various ways by which syllables in certain situations are varied by con- 
traction, elision, etc. These are usually called Figures of Prosody, and are 
as follows : 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 

1S19* — 1. Synaloepha cuts off a vowel or diphthong from the 
end of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, or h with a vowel 
following it, thus converting two syllables into one ; as, 

Terra antlqua by Synaloepha, terr* antiqua ; Dardanidae infensi, Bar- 
danid 1 infensi ; vertio hue, venf uc ; thus, 

Quidve moror ? si omnes fino ordine habetis Achivos. — Virg. 

Scanned thus, 
Quidve mo- ] ror ? s' 6m- | nes u- | n' or din' ha- | betis A- | chivos. 

The Synaloepha is sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place in the 
interjections, 0, heu, ah, proh, vae } vah, hei. 



858 SCANNING. [1519 

Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off, arc sometimes short- 
ened; as, 

Insulae | loni' | In mag- | no quas | dira Oe- | laeno. — Virg. 
Credimus | an qui a- | mant Ip- | si sibi | somnia | f Ingunt. — Id. 

2. Ecthlipsis cuts off m with a vowel preceding it, from the end of 
a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, or h followed by a 
vowel ; as, 

Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cm lumen ademptum. 

Scanned thus, 

Monstr' hor- | rend', In- | form', In- | gens cul | lumen ad- | emptum. 

This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets ; as, 
Corporum | offici- | um est quoni- | am preme- | re omnia de- | orsum. — 
Lucr. 

Obs. A Synaloej)ha and JEcihlipsis are sometimes found at the end of a 
line, where, after the completing of the metre, a syllable remains to be 
joined to the next line, which of course must begin with a vowel. This is 
called Synaphea ; thus, 

Sternitur | infe- | lix ali- | end | vulnere | coelum || que 
Adspicit, etc. 

Here the que and adspicit arc joined ; as, qu 1 adspicit. 

Jamque iter | em en- | si, tur- | res ac | tecta La- | tino- J rum 
Ardua, etc., where the -rum and ardua are joined ; as, r' ardua. 

3. Sy^€teresis 9 sometimes called Crasis y contracts two syllables into 
one ; as, Phaethon, for Phaethon ; this is done by forming two vowels into 
a diphthong ; ae, e'i, o'i, into ae, ei, oi ; or pronouncing the two syllables as 
one ; thus, ea, iu, as if ya, yu, etc. ; as, aurea, aurya ; filius,fllyus; and 
w«, wi, etc , as if wa, wi ; thus, genua, genwa ; tenuis, tenwis. 

4. Diaeresis divides one syllable into two ; as, aulai for aulae ; 
Perseus, for Perseus ; miliius^ for milvus ; solilit, for solvit ; voluit, for vol- 
vit; aquae, suetus, masit, Siievos, relanguii, reliqicas, for aquae } suetus y 
etc. ; as, 

Aula! in medio libabant pocula Bacchl. — Virg. 
Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. — Tibullus. 

5. Systole makes a long syllable short ; as, the penult in tulerunt ; 

thus, 

Matrl | longa de- | cem tule- | runt fas- | tidia | menses. — Virg. 

6. Diastole makes a short syllable long ; as, the last syllable of amor 
in the following verse : 

ConsI- | dant si | tantus a- | mor, et | moenia | condat. — Virg. 



1520-1522] METRES IN HORACE. 359 



STANZA. 

1520* — A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. When a 
poem consists of one kind of verse, it is called monocSlon j of two, dico- 
lon ; of three, tricolon. * 

1321, — The different kinds of verse in a poem are usually combined 
in regular portions called stanzas, or strophes, each of which contains the 
, same number of lines, the same kinds of verse, and these arranged in the 
I same order. 

When a stanza or strophe consists of two lines, the poem is called 
distrophon ; of three lines, tristrophon ; of four, tetrastrophon. 
Hence poems, according to the number of kinds of verse which they con- 
tain, and the number of lines in the stanza, are characterized as follows : 

Monocolon, one kind of verse in the poem. 

Dicolon distrophon, two kinds of verse, and two lines in the stanza. 
Dicolon tristrophon, two kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 
Dicolon tetrastrophon, two kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 
Tricolon tristrophon, three kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 
Tricolon tetrastrophon, three kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 



COMBINATIONS OF METRES IN HORACE. 

1322, — Horace makes use of nineteen different species of metre com- 
bined in eighteen different ways. They are arranged as follows, according 
to the order of preference given them by the poet. The references here, 
where not marked, are to 1511-1516. 

No. 1. Two lines Greater Alcaic. 151 7, 1. One Archilochian dimeter 

hypermeter, I. 2. 5. 3d ; and one Lesser Aleaid. 1517, 2. 
No. 2. Three lines Sapphic, II. 2. One Adonic, or Dactylic dim. IV. 7, 
No. 3. One line Choriambic trim, or Glyconic, V. 4. One choriambic 

trim, or Asclepiadic. V. 3. 
No. 4. One line Iambic trim, or Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Iambio 

dim. I. 2. 3. 
No. 5. Three lines, Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, Y. 3. One Chor. trim. 

or Glyconic, Y. 4. 
No. 6. Two lines Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, Y. 3. One Chor. trim. 

cat, or Pherecratic, Y. 3. One Chor. trim, or Glyconic, Y. 4. 
No. 7. Choriambic tetrameter, or Asclepiadic alone, Y. 3. 
No. 8. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Dactylic tetram. a 

posteriore, IY. 4. 2d. 
No. 9. Choriambic pentameter only, Y. 1. 

No. 10. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Iambic dim. 1. 2. 3. 
No. 11. Iambic trimeter Senarian only, 1. 2. 5. 1st. 
No. 12. One line Choriambic dim. Y. 6. One Chor. tetram. (altered), 

Y. 2. 
No. 13. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY, 1. One Iambic trim. sen. 

I, 3. 5. 1st. 



3G0 



METRICAL KEY TO ODES OF HOEACE. 



[1523 



No. 14. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Archilochian Dac- 
tylic trimeter catalectic, IV. 6. 

No. 15. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambico-dactylic, 
1517, 5. 

No. 16. One line Iambic trim. Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Dactylic 
Iambic, 1517, 4. 

No. 17. One line Archilochian Heptameter, 1517, 3. One Archilochian 
Iambic trimeter, Catalectic, I. 2. 5. 2d. 

No. 18. One line Iambic dimeter Acephalous, I. 5. 9th ; and one Iambic 
trimeter catalectic, I. 5. 2d. 

No. 19. Ionic a minore only, VI. 2. The first line contains three feet, 
the second, four. 

Note. — The Satires and Epistles are in Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. 



METRICAL KEY TO ODES OF HORACE. 



1523, — This key gives, in alphabetical order, the first words of each 
ode, with a reference to the Nos. in the preceding section where the stanza 
is described, and reference made to the place where each metre is 
explained. 



Aeli vetusto No. 1 

Aequam memento 1 

Albi ne doleas 5 

Altera jam teritur 13 

Augustam amici 1 

AtquI Deorum 4 

Audlvere Lyce 6 

Bacchum in remotls 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Coelo suplnas 1 

Coelo tonantem 1 

Cum tu Lydia 3 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende coelo 1 

Dianam tenerae 6 

Difiugere nives 14 

Dive quern proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram 3 

Eheu fugaces 1 

Est mihi nonum 2 

Et thtire et fidibus 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Faune nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 



Herculis ritu No. 2 

Horrida tempestas 15 

Ibis Liburnis 4 

Icci beatis 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrae 2 

Incltisam Danaen 5 

Intactis opulentior. . . , 3 

Integer vitae 2 

Intermissa Venus diu 3 

Jam jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terns 2 

Jam veris ccmites 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabunt alii 8 

Lupls et agnis 4 

Lydia die per omnes 12 

Maecenas atavls 7 

Mala soluta ' 4 

Martils coelebs 2 

Mater saeva Cupidinum 3 

Mercurl facunde „ . . . 2 

Mercuri nam te 2 

Miserarum est 19 

Mollis inertia 10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 



1524] 



APPENDIX. 



361 



Musis amicus No. 1 

Natis in tisum 1 

Ne forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillae. 2 

Nolls longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 

Nun ebur neque aureum 18 

Non semper imbres 1 

NOn iisitata 1 

Non vides quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nullam Yare sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

crudelis adhuc 9 

Diva gratum . . 1 

fons Bandusiae 6 

matre pulchra 1 

nata mecum 1 

navis referent 6 

saepe mecum 1 

O Yenus reglna 2 

OdI profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parcus Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 

Persicos odl puer 2 

Petti nihil me 16 

Phoebe, silvarumque 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 



Poscimur slquid No. 2 

Quae cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 

Quando repostum. ^ 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho 3 

Quern tu, Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis deslderio 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me, Bacche 3 

Quo, quo scelestl ruitis 4 

Rectius vlves 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scrlberis Yario 5 

Septimi Gades* 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrae 8 

Tu ne quaesieris 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris . . ._. 2 

Uxor pauperis Ibycl 3 

Yelox amoenum. 1 

Yides ut alta 1 

Yile potabis 2 

Yltas hinnuleo 6 

Yixl chorels 1 



APPENDIX. 

1. ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME. 
1. Divisions of the Year. 

1524:* — Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months, 
as follows: 1. Martins, from Mars, his supposed father; 2. Aprilis, from 
Aperio, " to open ; " 3. Mains, from Mdia, the mother of Mercury ; 4. Ju- 
nius, from the goddess Juno. The rest were named from their number, as 
follows : 5. Quintilis, afterwards Julius, from Julius Caesar ; 6. Sextilis, 
afterwards Augustus, from Augustus Caesar ; 7. September ; 8. October ; 
9. November ; and 10. December. Numa afterwards added two months: 
viz.: 11. Januarius, from the god Janus; 12. Februarius, from feh 
" to purify." 

16 



362 appendix. [1525-1527 

1525. — As the months were regulated by the course of the moon, it 
was soon found that the months and seasons did not always correspond, 
and various expedients were adopted to correct this error. Much confu- 
sion, however, still remained till about A. XL 101 (B. C. 47), when Julius 
Caesar, assisted by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, reformed the 
Calendar, adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and as- 
signed to each of the twelve months the number of days which they still 



contain. 



2. The Roman Month. 



1526. — The Romans divided their month into three parts, by three 
fixed days, called Kalends, Nones, and Ides.* The first day of every 
month was called the Kalends ; the fifth was called the Nones ; and the 
thirteenth was called the Ides ; except in March, May, July, and October, 
when the Nones fell on the seventh, and the Ides on the fifteenth ; and the 
day was numbered according to its distance, (not after but) before each of 
these points ; that is, after the Kalends, they numbered the day according 
to its distance before the Nones ; after the Nones, according to its distance 
before the Ides ; and after the Ides, according to its distance before the 
Kalends — both days being always included. The day before each of these 
points was never numbered, but called Prldie, Nonas, Idiis, or Kalendas, 
as the case might be ; the day before_that was called tertio, the day before 
that, quarto, etc. ; scil. ante Nonas, Idus, Kalendds. 

1527* — Various expressions and constructions were used by the Ro- 
mans in the notation of the days of the months. Thus, for example, the 
29th December, or the 4th of the Kalends of January, was expressed dif- 
ferently as follows : 

1st. Quarto Kalendarum Januaril. Abbreviated, IV. Kal. Jan., or 

2d. Quarto Kalendas Januaril. " IV. Kal. Jan., or 

3d. Quarto Kalendas Januarias. " IV. Kal. Jan. or 

4th. Ante diem quartum Kal. Jan. " a. d. IV. K. Jan. 

In these expressions, quarto agrees with die understood ; and die gov- 
erns Kalendarwm in the genitive. Kalendas is governed by ante under- 
stood. In the first expression, Januaril is considered as a noun governed 
by Kalendarum ; in the second, as a noun governed by Kalendas ; in the 
third, Januarias is regarded as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas; in 
the fourth, ante diem quartum is a technical phrase for die quarto ante, 
and frequently has a preposition before it ; as, in ante diem, etc. or ex 
ante diem, etc. 

The notation of Nones and Ides was expressed in the same way, and 
with the same variety of expression. 

The correspondence of the Roman notation of time with our own mav 
be seen by inspection of the following ' 



JJ 6 ^ day was named Kalends, from the old verb halo, "to call," because when 
the month was regulated I according to the course of the moon, the priest announced the 
new moon, which was of course the first day of the month. The Nones were sc called 
^ww at r da / ^JT the ninth from ti,e Wes. The term Ides is derived from 
^f??^^ 11 Z^iduare, "to divide," it is supposed because that ; dJv beSS 
about the middle of the month, divided it into two nearly equal parts 7 ' S 



1528-1530] 



TABLE OF TIME. 



363 



1528.— 



TABLE. 



Days of 


Mar. Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Aprw. Jun. 


Febk. 


ouf 


Jul. Oct. 


Dec. 


Sept. Nov. 


2S days. 


Months. 


31 days. 


31 days. 


30 days. 


Bissex. 29. 


1 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


Kalendae. 


2 


VI. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


3 


V. 


III. " 


III. " 


III. " 


4 


IV. « 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


5 


III. " 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


6 


Pildie " 


VIII. idtis. 


VIII. Idus. 


VIII. idus. 


7 


Nonae. 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VII. " 


8 


VIII. Idtis. 


VI. " 


VI. " 


VI. " 


9 


VII. " 


V. 


V. " 


V. 


10 


VI. " 


IV. " 


IV. " 


IV. " 


11 


V. 


III. " 


III. " 


III. " 


12 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


13 


III. " 


Idus. 


Idus. " 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie u 


XIX. kal. 


XVIII. kal. 


XVI. kal. 


15 


Idas. 


xvm. « 


XVII. " 


XV. " 


16 


XVII. kal. 


XVII. " 


XVI. " 


XIV. " 


17 


XVI. " 


XVI. « 


XV. 


XIII. " 


18 


XV. " 


XV. " 


XIV. " 


XII. " 


19 


XIV. " 


XIV. " 


XIII. " 


XL " 


20 


XIII. " 


XIII. '< 


XII. 


X. 


21 


XII. " 


XII. " 


XI. 


IX. « 


22 


XI. 


XI. " 


X. " 


VIII. " 


23 


X. 


X. 


IX. 


VII. " 


24 


IX. 


IX. 


yin. « 


VI. u 


25 


VIII. " 


VIII. " 


VII. - " 


V. " 


26 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VI. 


IV. " 


27 


VI. 


VI. " 


V. 


III. " 


28 


V. 


V. 


IV. 


Pridie Mar. 


29 


IV. 


IV. " 


III. 




30 


III. " 


III. M 


Pridie " 




31 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 







3. Rules for reducing Time. 
As, however, this table cannot be always at hand, the following simple 
rules will enable a person to reduce time without a table. 

I. TO EEDUCE KOMAST TIME TO OUE OWN. 

For reducing Kalends. 

1529. — Kalendae are always the first day of the month ; Pridie Ka- 
lendarum, always the last day of the month preceding. For any other 
notation, observe the following — 

1530. — Rule. Subtract the number of the Kalends given from the 
number of days in the preceding month ; add 2, and the result will be the 
day of the preceding month ; thus, 



364 REDUCTION OF TIME. [1531-1536 

X. Kal. Jan.— Dec. has days 31—10 = 21 +.2 = 23d of Dec'r. 
XVI. Kal. Dec— Nov. has days 30—16 = 14 + 2 = 16th of Nov'r. 

For reducing Nones and Ides* 

1331* — Rule. Subtract the number given, from the number of the 
day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add 1. The result will be the day 
of the month named ; thus, 

IV. Non. Dec— Nones on the 5 — 4 = 1 + 1 = 2, or 2d Dec'r. 
VI. Id. Dec— Ides on the 13—6 = 7 + 1 = 8, or 8th Dec'r. 
IV. Non. Mar. — Nones on the 7 — 4 = 3 + 1 = 4, or 4th March. 
VI. Id. Mar.— Ides on the 15—6 = 9 + 1 = 10, or 10th March. 

II. FOE REDUCING OUR TIME TO ROMAN. 

1332, — If the day is that on which the Kalends, Nones, or Ides fall, 
call it by these names. If the day before, call it Pridie Kal. (of the fol- 
lowing month), Prid. Non. Pridie Id. (of the same month). Other days to 
be denominated according to their distance before the point next follow- 
ing, viz.: those after the Kalends and before the Nones, to be called 
Nones ; those after the Nones and before the Ides, to be called Ides, viz. : 
of the month named ; and those after the Ides and before the Kalends, to 
be called Kalends, viz. : of the month following ; as follows : 

For reducing to Kalends. 

1533* — Rule. Subtract the day of the month given, from the number 
of days in the month, and add 2. The result will be the number of the 
Kalends of the month following ; thus, 

Dec. 23d.— Dec. has days 31—23 = 8 + 2 ■ = 10, or X. Kal. Jan. 
Nov. 16th.— Nov. has days 30—16 = 14 + 2 = 16, or XVI. Kal. Dec. 

For reducing to Nones and Ides. 

1534, — Rule. Subtract the day of the month given from the day of 
the Nones (if between the Kalends and Nones), or from the day of the Ides 
(if between the Nones and Ides), and add 1. The result will be the number 
of the Nones or Ides respectively ; as, 

Dec. 2d.— Day of the Nones 5— 2 = 3 + 1 = 4, or IV. Non. Dec. 
Dec. 8th. " Ides 13— 8 = 5 + 1 = 6, or VI. Id. Dec. 

March 4th. " Nones 7— 4 = 3 + 1 = 4, or IV. Non. Mar. 
March 10th. " Ides 15—10 = 5 + 1 = 6, or VI, Id. Mar. 

Division of the Moman Day. 

1535* — The Roman civil day extended, as with us, from midnight 
to midnight, and its parts were variously named ; as, media nox, gallicinium, 
canticinium, diluculum, mane, antemeridianum, merldies,pomeridianum, etc. 

153.6. — The natural day extended from sunrise (solis ortus) till 
sunset (solis oceasus), and was divided into twelve equal parts, called hours 



1537-1542] ROMAN NAMES. 365 

(horae) ; which were, of course, longer or shorter according to the length 
of the day. At the equinox, their hour and ours would be of the same 
length ; but, as they began to number at sunrise, the number would be dif- 
ferent, i. e., their first hour would correspond to our 1 o'clock, their second 
to our 8 o'clock, etc. 

_ 1537 • — The night was divided by the Romans into four watches 
(vigiliae), each equal to three hours ; the first and second -extending from 
sunset to midnight, and the third and fourth from midnight to sunrise. 



II. OF ROMAN NAMES. 

1538.'- — The Romans at first seem to have had but one name ; as, 
Romulus, Remus, Numitor : sometimes two ; as, Numa Pompilius, Ancus 
Martins, etc. ; but when they began to be divided into tribes, or clans 
(gentes), they commonly had three names — the praenomen, the nomen, 
and the cognomen ; arranged as follows : 

1. The Praen5men stood first, and distinguished the individual. It 
was commonly written with one or two letters ; as, A. for Aulus ; C. for 
Cuius ; Cn. for Crieius, etc. 

2. The N5men, which distinguished the gens. This name commonly 

ended in ius ; as, Cornelius, Fabius, Tullius, etc. 

3. The Cognomen, or surname, was put last, and marked the family ; 
( as, Cicero, Caesar, etc. 

Thus, in Publius Cornelias Scipio, Publius is the praenomen, and de- 
notes the individual ; Cornelius is the nomen, and denotes the gens ; and 
Scipio is the cognomen, and denotes the family. 

4. Sometimes a fourth name, called, in later times, Agnomen, was 
added, as a memorial of some illustrious action or remarkable event. 
Thus, Scipio was named Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage in Africa. 

1539* — The three names, however, were not always used — commonly 
two, and sometimes only one. In speaking to any one, the praenomen was 
commonly used, which was peculiar to Roman citizens. 

1540* — When there was only one daughter in a family, she was 
called by the name of the gens, with a feminine termination ; as, Tullia, 
the daughter of M. Tullius Cicero ; Julia, the daughter of C. Julius Caesar. 
If there were two, the elder was called Major, and the younger Minor ; 
■as, Tullia Major, etc. If more than two, they were distinguished by nu- 
merals ; as, Prima, Secunda, Tertia, etc. 

154:1 e — Slaves had no praenomen, but were anciently called by the 

I praenomen of their masters ; as, Marcipor, as if Marcl puer ; Lucipor 

\ (Lucil puer), etc. Afterwards they came to be named either from their 

country or from other circumstances ; as, Syncs, Davus, Geta, Tiro, 

Laurea ; and still more frequently from their employment; as, Medici, 

Chirurgi, Paedagogi, Grammatici, Scribae, Fabri, etc. 

154:2. — The most common abbreviations of Latin names, are 
the following, viz. : 



306 



THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 



[1543, 1544 



A., Aulus. 
C, Cdius. 
Cn., Cneius. 
D., Decimus. 
L., Lucius. 
M., Marcus. 



A. d., Ante diem. 

A. U., ^4?mo Urbis. 

A. U. C, .4 twig urbis 
conditae. 

Cal., or kal., Kalendae. 

Cos., Consul. (Singu- 
lar.) 

Coss., Consults. (Plu- 
ral.) 

D. Divus. 



M. T. C., Jfarcws Tul- 

lius Cicero. 
M.', Mtinius. 
Mam., Mamercus. 
N., Nmnerius. 
P., Publius. 

Other Abbreviations. 
Eq. Rom., i&?wes ifo- 

Id., 7<ta. 

Imp., Imperdtor. 

Non., Nonae. 

P. C, Patres conscripti. 

P. R., Populus Pom anus. 

Pont. Max., Pontifex 

maximus. 
Pr. Praetor. 



Q., or Qu., Quintus. 

Ser., Servius. 

S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Sp., Spurius. 

T., TOws. 

Ti., or Tib., Tiberius. 



Proc. Proconsul. 

Resp. Respublwa. 

S. Salutem, Sacrum., 
Senatus. 

S. D. P., Salutem dlcit 
plurimam. 

S. P. Q. R., Senatus pop- 
ulusque Romdnus. 

S. C, Senatus consul- 
turn. 



in. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 
154:3. — The Roman people were originally divided as follows : 

1. Patres. Fathers, or Senators, called also patroui, from their rela- 

tion to the clienies, to whom they were the legal protectors. 

2. Plebes, or Plebs, or common people. 

There were added — 

3. Equites, or Knights, persons of merit and distinction, selected from 

the two orders, whose duty at first was to serve in war as cavalry, 
but they were afterwards advanced to other important offices. It 
was necessary for them to be over 18 years of age, and, latterly, to 
possess a fortune of four hundred thousand sesterces. 

4. Liberti, or Libertim. Freedmen — persons who had once been 

slaves, but obtained their freedom, and ranked as citizens. They 
were called liberti in relation to the person by whom they were 
set free, and llbertlnl in relation to all others. 

5. Servi. Slaves. 

154:4: , — When Romulus arranged the affairs of the new city, he ap- * 
pointed a council of 100 Patres from the Romans, and afterwards added 
to them 100 more from the Sabines. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of 
Rome, added 100 more, called Patres minorum gentium, in relation to 
whom the former senators were called Patres majorum gentium, making 
300 in all. A great part of these were slain by Tarquin the proud ; and 
after his expulsion, Brutus, the first consul, chose a number to supply their 
place, who were called Patres conscripti, because they were enrolled with 
the other senators. This title was afterwards applied to all the senators 
in council assembled, and is supposed to be abbreviated for Patres et con- 
scripti, 4 



1545-1549] THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS. 367 

1545. — The Patres, as a class, were called Patricii, or Patricians. 
Besides these distinctions among the Romans, there were also distinctions 
of rank or party, as follows : 

Nobiles, whose ancestors or themselves held any curule office, i. e., 
had been Consul, Praetor, Censor, or Curule Aedile. 

Ign5biles, who neither themselves, nor their ancestors, had held any 
curule office. 

Optimates, those who favored the senate. 

Populares, those who favored the people. 

IV. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS. 

154:6. — At first Rome was governed by kings for the space of 244 
years. The ordinary magistrates after that, till the end of the republic, 
were: 

1. Consuls, or chief magistrates, of whom there were two. 

2. Praetors, or judges, also originally two in number, next in dignity 

to the consuls. 

3. Censors, who took charge of the census, and had a general super- 

vision of the morals of the people. 

4. Tribunes of the people, the special guardians of the commonalty 

against the encroachments of the patricians, and who, by the 
word " Veto," / forbid, could prevent the passage of any law. 

5. Aediles, who took care of the city and had the inspection and regu- 

lation of its public buildings, temples, theatres, baths, etc. 

6. Quaestors, or Treasurers, who collected the public revenues. 

1547. — Under the emperors there were added — 

1. Praefectus Urbi, or Urbis, Governor of the city. 

2. Praefectus Praetorii, Commander of the body guards. 

3. Praefectus Annonae, whose duty it was to procure and distribute 

grain in time of scarcity. 

4. Praefectus miHtaris aeraril, who had charge of the military fund. 

5. Praefectus Classis, Admiral of the fleet. 

6. Praefectus Vigilum, or captain of the watch. 



V. THE ROMAN ARMY. 

1548. — The Romans were a nation of warriors. All within a certain 
a^e (17 to 45), were obliged to go forth to war at the call of their country. 
When an army was wanted for any purpose, a levy was made among the 
people, of the number required. These were then arranged, officered, and 
equipped for 'service. 

1549. The Legion, The leading division of the Roman army 

was the legion, which, when full, consisted of 6000 men, but varied from 
that to 4000. 



V. 
368 ROMAN ARMY. [1550-1556 

1 550.— Each legion was divided into ten cohorts ; each cohort, 
into three maniples; and each maniple, into two centuries* 

1551.— -The complement of cavalry (equifatus) for each legion was 
three hundred, called ala, or Justus equitatus. These were divided into 
ten turmae, or troops; and each turma into three decuriae, or 
bodies of ten men. 

Division of the Soldiers. 

1552. — The Roman soldiers were divided into three classes, viz. : 

1. Hastati, or spearmen ; young men who occupied the first line. 

2. Principes, or middle-aged men, who occupied the middle line. 

3. Triarii, veterans of approved valor, who occupied the third line. 

Besides these, there were — 

4. Velites, or light-armed soldiers ; distinguished for agility and swift- 

ness. 

5. Funditores, or slingers. 

6. Sagittarii, or bowmen. 

The Officers of the Legion were: 

15 53. — 1. Six Military tribunes, who commanded under the consul 

in turn, usually a month. 
2. The Centuriones, who commanded the centuries. 

The Officers of the Cavalry were: 

1. The Praefectus Alae, or commander of the wing. 

2. The Decuriones, or captains of ten. 

1554:. — The whole army was under the command of the Consul, or 
Proconsul, who acted as commander-in-chief. Under him were his Legati, 
or lieutenants, who acted in his absence, or under his direction ; or, as his 
deputies, were sent by him on embassies, or on business of special* im- 
portance. 

VI. ROMAN MONEY— WEIGHTS— AND MEASURES. 

Moman Money. 

1555. — The principal coins among the Romans were — JBrass : the 
As, and its divisions ; Silver : Sestertius, Quindrius, and Denarius, 
called blgati and quadrlgdti, from the impression of a chariot drawn by 
two or four horses on one side ; Gold : the Aureus or Solidus. 

1556. — Before the coining of silver, the Romans reckoned by the 
As, a brass coin, called also libra. This coin was originally the weight 



1557-1559] TABLE OF ROMAN MONEY. 



3r,9 



of the Roman libra or pondux, but was afterwards reduced at different 
times, till at last it came to one twenty-fourth of a pound, and was called 
libella.^ It was divided into twelve equal parts called Uhciae, every number 
of which had a distinct name, as follows : 



Uncia. 



12 -.-~~« 

"ft" or i Sextans. 
-ft or \ Quadrans. 
•ft- or £ 2Viens. 

i& 



Quincunx. 



-ft or £ Semis, sent- 

bella. 
-ft- Septunx. 

-ft- or § ifes, or fos- 



"ft or I Dodrans. 
\% or f Dextans. 
44 Deunx. 



1557 • — After the use of silver money, accounts were kept in Ses- 
terces (Sestertii). This coin, emphatically called Nummus (money), was 
originally equal to 2 J asses, as the name sestertius means. Its symbol was 
L. L. S., i, e., Libra Libra Semis, or the numeral letters ; thus, IIS, or with 
a line across HS. Other coins were multiples of this ; thus, the denarius 
was equal to 4 sesterces, or 10 asses ; and the aureus, a gold coin, was equal 
to 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii. W^ien the as was reduced in weight after 
A. U. C. 536, the sestertius was worth 4 asses, and the denarius, 16. 

1558* — A thousand sestertii was called sestertium (not a coin but 
the name of a sum), and was indicated by the mark iis. This word was 
never used in the singular ; and any sum less than 2000 sesterces was called 
so many sestertii ; 2000 was called duo or bina sestertia ; 10,000, dena ses- 
tertia ; 20,000, vicena sestertia, etc., up to a million of sesterces, which was 
written decies centena millia sestertiorum, or nummorum, ten times a hun- 
dred thousand sesterces. This was commonly abbreviated into decies sester- 
tium, or decies nummum, in which expressions centena millia, or centies 
millia, is always understood. 

1550 • — The following table will show the value of the Roman as, in 
federal money, both before and after the Punic war, and of the larger 
coins at all times. 



2 
5 
Before 536-2^ 
After 536-4 

2 

2 
25 

10 



1. Table of Roman Money. 

Before A. U. 
536. 
D. cts. m. 

Teruncius, or 3 Unciae, 3.8 

Teruncil = 1 Sembella, 7. 7 

Sembella = 1 As, 1 5.4 

t Asses, = 1 Sestertius, 3 8.6 

Sestertii = 1 Quinarius, or 

Victoriatus, . ... 7 7.3 

Qulnarii = 1 Denarii, 15 4.7 

Denarii = 1 Aureus, or So- 

lidus, 3 86 8.4 

Aurei = 1 Sestertium 38 68 4.6 

16* 



After A. U. 

536. 
D. cts. m. 
2.4 
4.8 
9.6 


3 8.6 


7 7.3 

15 4.7 


3 86 8.4 
38 68 4.6 



370 



ROMAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



[1560 



2. Homan Weights. 

Troy Weight. 
Lbs. oz. dwt. grs. 
The Siliqua 2.92 

3 Siliquae == 1 Obolus 8.76 

2 Oboli = 1 Scrupulum, 17.53 

4 Scrupula = 1 Sextula, 2 22.13 

1^ Sextula = 1 Slciliquus, 4 9.19 

l£ Slciliquus = 1 Duella, 5 20.26 

3 Duellae = 1 Uncia, 17 12.79 

12 Unciae = 1 Libra, 10 10 9.53 

The Drachma was 3 Scrupula. 



Avoirdupois 
Lbs. oz. 



Wt. 
drs. 
0.106 
0.320 
0.641 
2.564 
3.847 
5.129 
15.389 
11 8.668 



3. Homan Liquid Measure* 

1 Ligula, or Cochleare, is equal to 
4 Ligula, = 1 
lj Cyathi, 

2 Acetabula, 
2 Quartarii, 
2 Heminae, 
6 Sextarii, 
4 Congil, 
2 Urnae, 

20 Amphorae, 

The Sextarius was divided into twelve Unciae, one of which was the 
Cyathus, equal to a small wine glass. 



) 


Galls. 


qts. pts. 
0.019 


1 Cyathus, 
1 Acetabulum, 


0.079 
0.118 


1 Quartarius, 
1 Hemlna, 




0.237 
0.475 


1 Sextarius, 




0.950 


1 Congius, 
1 Urna, 


2 


2 1.704 

3 0.819 


1 Amphora, 
1 Culeus, 


5 
114 


2 1.639 
0.795 



4. Roman Dry Measure, 



1 Sextarius (same as in liquid measure), 

8 Sextarii, = 1 Semi-modius, 

2 Semi-modii, = 1 Modius, 



Pks. galls, qts. 



pts. 
0.950 
1.606 
1.213 



Homan Measures of Length. 

1300. — The Roman foot (pes\ like the c?s, was divided into 12 unciae, 
different numbers of which were sometimes called by the same names as 
those of the as ; viz. : Sextans, quadrans, etc. The measures less than the 
uncia were the digitus = -J ; the semiuncia = \ ; the sicillquis = \- ; and 
the sextula =z £ of the uncia ; i. e., the pts, or foot, contained 12 unciae, 
or 16 digiti, or 24 semiunciae, or 48 siciliqul, or 72 sextulae. 



5. Table of Measures above a Pes. 



1 Pes =12 Unciae, or 16 Digits, 

1\ P6s = 1 Palmipes, , 

lJPes = 1 Cubitus 



Yds. 



ft. 

.97 
1.21 
1.45 



100 


Pedes quadrat! 


— 


4 


Scriipula 


= 


H Sextulae 


— 


5 


Actus, or 6 Sextulae 


— 


6 


Unciae 


— 


2 


Actus quadratl 


— 


2 


Jugera 


= 


100 


Haeredia 


= 


4 


Centuriae 


— 



1561-1565] AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 371 

Yds. ft. 

2£ Pedes = 1 Pes Sestertius, 2.42 

5 Pedes = 1 Passus, 1 1.85 

125 Passus = 1 Stadium, 202 0.*72 

8 Stadia = 1 Milliare, or mile, 1617 2.75 

6. Table of Land Measure. 

A. roods, poles, sq. ft. 

1 Scrupulum, 94.23 

1 Sextula, 1 104.69 

1 Actus Simplex, 1 180.08 

1 Uncia, 8 83.65 

1 Actus quadratus, 1 9 229.67 

1 Jugerum (As), 2 19 187.09 

1 Haeredium, -1 39 101.83 

1 Centuria, 124 2 17 109.79 

1 Saltus, 498 1 29 166.91 

The Roman Jugerum, or As, of land, was also divided into 12 Unciae, 
any number of which was denominated as before, 1556. 

VII. DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

136 1. — Of the Roman literature, previous to A. U. 514, scarcely a 
vestige remains. The Roman writers, subsequent to that period, have been 
arranged into four classes, with reference to the purity of the language at 
the time in which they lived. These are called the Golden age, the Silver 
age, the Brazen age, and the Iron age. 

1562. — The Golden age extends from the time of the second 
Punic war, B. C. 218, to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, a period of 
about 230 years. In that period, Facciolatus reckons up in all 62 writers, 
of many of whose works, however, only fragments remain. The most dis- 
tinguished writers of that period are Terence, Catullus, Caesar, Nepos, 
Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Livy, and SallusL 

1363. — The Silver age extends from the death of Augustus to 
the death of Trajan, A. D. 118, a period of 104 years. The writers who 
nourished in this age are about twenty-three in number, of whom the most 
distinguished are Celsus, Velleius, Columella, the Senecas, the Plinys, Juve- 
nal, Qicintilian, Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius. 

1364. — The writers of the Brazen age 9 extending from the death 
of Trajan till Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D. 410, were thirty-five ; 
the most distinguished of whom were Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lactan- 
tius, and Claudian. 

1363. — From this period commenced the Iron age, during which 
the Latin language was much adulterated by the admixture of foreign words, 
and its purity, elegance, and strength, greatly declined. 



LIST OF VEEBS 

WHOSE CONJUGATION IS GIVEN IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN THIS 

GRAMMAR. 

*** The numbers refer to paragraphs, and not to pages. 



Abluo, 389. 
Aboleo, 380. 
Abolesco, 396. 
Accendo, 390. 
Acesco, 396. 
Acuo, 388. 
Addo, 373. 
Adipiscor, 399. 
Adolesco, 396. 
Adorior, 409. 
Adsto, 373. 
Aegresco, 397. 
Affligo, 394. 
Agnoseo, 392. 
Ago, 388. 
Aio, 443. 
Albeo, 385. 
Algeo, 381. 
AUieio, 394. 
Alo, 391. 
Amicio, 404. 
Amo, 282. 
Amplector, 399. 
Ango, 394. 
Aperio, 404. 
Apiscor, 399. 
Arcesso, 393. 
Ardeo, 381. 
Arguo, 388. 
Assentior, 409. 
Assideo, 378. 
Audeo, 312. 
Audio, 300. 
Augeo, 381. 
Ave, 446. 
Aveo, 385. 

Batuo, 388. 
Bibo, 390. 
Blandior, 408. 



Cado, 387. 
Caedo, 387. 
Calesco, 396. 
Calleo, 384. 
Candeo, 384. 
Cando, 390. 
Caneo, 385. 
Cano, 387. 
Capesso, 393. 
Capio, 388. 
Carpo, 394. 
Caveo, 378. 
Cedo, 448. 
Cedo, 394. 
Censeo, 382. 
Cerno, 392. 
Cieo, 380. 
Cingo, 394. 
Cio, 380. 
Circumago, 388, 
Claudo, 394. 
CoepT, 437. 
Cognosco, 392. 
Cogo, 388. 
Colligo, 388. 
Colo, 391. 
Comminiscor, 399 
Como, 394. 
Comperio, 403. 
Compesco, 391. 
Cornpungo, 387. 
Concido, 387. 
Concino, 391. 
Concupisco, 396. 
Conditio, 394. 
Confldo, 312. 
Confit, 430. 
Congruo, 388. 
Conniveo, 379. 
Conspicio, 394. 



Contemno, 394. 
Coquo, 394. 
Crebresco, 398. 
Crepo, 375. 
Cresco, 392. 
Cubo, 375. 
Cudo, 390. 
Cumbo, 391. 
Cupio, 393. 
Curro, 387. 

Decet, 454. 
Defendo, 390. 
Defetiscor, 399. 
Dent, 430. 
Dego, 390. 
Deleo, 380. 
Demo, 394. 
Depso, 391. 
Detendo, 387. 
Dico, 394. 
DiffJdo, 312. 
Diligo, 394. 
Dimico, 375, 
Disco, 387. 
Discrepo, 375. 
Discumbo, 391. 
Distinguo, 394. 
Disto, 372. 
Ditesco, 397. 
Divido, 394. 
Do, 372. 
Doceo, 382. 
Domo, 375. 
Duco, 394. 
Duplico, 375. 
Duresco, 398. 

Edo, 388, 431. 
Egeo, 384. 



Elicio, 391. 
Emico, 375. 
Emo, 388. 
Emungo, 394. 
Eneco, 375. 
Eo, 406. 
Esurio, 407. 
Evado, 394. 
Evanesco, 398. 
Excello, 391. 
Exolesco, 396. 
Expergiscor, 399. 
Experior, 409. 
Exstinguo, 394. 
Exuo, 388. 

Facesso, 393. 
Facio, 388. 
Fallo, 387. 
Farcio, 405. 
Farl, 441. 
Fateor, 383. 
Faveo, 378. 
Fendo, 390. 
Ferio, 407. 
Fero, 422. 
Ferveo, 379. 
Fervo, 389. 
Fido, 312. 
Flgo, 394. 
Findo, 390. 
Fingo, 394. 
Flo, 426. 
Flecto, 394. 
Fleo, 380. 
Fllgo, 394. 
Floreo, 384. 
Floresco, 396. 
Fluo, 394. 
Fodio, 388 



Forem, 445. 
Foveo, 378. 
Frango, 388. 
Fremo,-391. 
Frendo, 390. 
Frico, 375. 
Frigeo, 381. 
Frigo, 394. 
Fruor, 399. 
Fugio, 388. 
Fulcio, 405. 
Fulgeo, 381. 
Fulgo, 394. 
Fundo, 388. 
Fungor, 399. 
Furo, 391. 

Gannio, 407. 
Gaudeo, 312. 
Gemo, 391. 
Gero, 394. 
Gigno, 391. 
Gradior, 399. 
Grandesco, 397. 

Haereo, 381. 
Haurio, 405. 
Hebeo, 385. 
Horreo, 384. 

Ico, 390. 
Imbuo, 389. 
Impleo, 380. 
Incendo, 390. 
Incesso, 393. 
Increpo, 375. 
Incumbo, 391. 
Indulgeo, 381. 
Induo, 389. 
Infit, 430. 
Innotesco, 398. 
Innuo, 389. 
Inquam, 444. 
Intelligo, 388. 
Inveterasco, 392, 
Irascor, 399. 

Jacio, 388. 
Jubeo, 381. 
Jimgo, 394. 
Juvo, 374. 



INDEX. 




Labor, 399. 


Nanciscor, 399. 


Piget, 454. 


Lacesso, 393. 


Nascor, 399. 


Pingo, 394. 


Lacio, 391. 


Neco, 375. 


Pinguesco, 397. 


Laedo, 394. 


Necto, 391. 


Pinso, 391. 


Lambo, 390. 


Negligo, 388. 


Plango, 394. 


Langueo, 379. 


Neo, 380. 


Plaudo, 394. 


Largior, 408. 


Nequeo, 406. 


Plecto, 394. 


Lateo, 384. 


Nigresco, 398. 


Pleo, 380, 5. 


Lavo, 374. 


Ningo, 394. 


Plico, 375. 


Lego, 388. 


Niteo, 384. 


Pluo, 389. 


Libet, 454. 


Nitor, 399. 


Poenitet, 454. 


Licet, 454. 


Nolo, 418. 


Polleo, 385. 


Lingo, 394. 


Nosco, 392. 


Polliceor, 308. 


Lino, 393. 


Niibo, 394. 


Pono, 391. 


Linquo, 379. 


Nupturio, 407. 


Posco, 387. 


Liqueo, 379. 




Potior, 408. 


Liquor, 399. 


Obdorsmisco, 396. 


Poto, 375. 


Loquor, 399. 


Obliviscor, 399. 


Praecino, 387. 


Lticeo, 381. 


Obmtitesco, 398. 


Praesideo, 378. 


Ludo, 394. 


Obsolesco, 396. 


Prandeo, 379. 


Lugeo, 381. 


Obsurdesco, 398. 


Prehendo, 390. 


Luo, 389. 


Occido, 391. 


Premo, 394. 




Occino, 387. 


Proficiscor, 399. 


Macresco, 398. 


OdI, 437. 


Profligo, 394. 


Madesco, 397. 


Offendo, 390. 


Psallo, 390. 


Maereo, 385. 


Operio, 404. 


Pudet, 454. 


Malo, 419. 


Oportet, 454. 


Pango, 387. 


Mando, 390. 


Opperior, 409. 




Maneo, 381. 


Ordior, 409. 


Quaero, 393. 


Maturesco, 398. 


Orior, 409. 


Quaeso, 449. 


Medeor, 383. 


Ostendo, 387. 


Quatio, 394. 


Memini, 437. 


Ovo, 450. 


Queo, 406. 


Mentior, 408. 




Queror, 394. 


Mergo, 394. 


Paciscor, 399. 


Quiesco, evl, etum 


Metior, 409. 


Palleo, 384. 




Meto, 391. 


Pando, 390. 


Rado, 394. 


Metuo, 389. 


Pango, 387, 394. 


Rapio, 391. 


Mico, 375. 


Parco, 387. 


Recriidesco, 398. 


Minuo, 389. 


Pario, 387. 


Redigo, 388. 


MTror, 307. 


Partior, 408. 


Redimo, 388. 


Misceo, 382. 


Parturio, 407. 


Reo;o, 394. 


Miseret, 454. 


Pasco, 392. 


Relinquo, 388. 


Mitesco, 397. 


Pateo, 384. 


Reminiscor, 399. 


Mitto, 394. 


Patior, 399. 


Renldeo, 385. 


Molior, 408. 


Paveo, 378. 


Reor, 383. 


Molo, 391. 


Pecto, 394. 


Reperio, 403. 


Moneo, 288. 


Pello, 387. 


Replico, 375. 


Mordeo, 376. 


Pendeo, 377. 


Repo, 394. 


Morior, 399. 


Pendo, 387. 


Rcsono, 375. 


Moveo, 378. 


Peraso, 388. 


Revlvisco, 396. 


Mulceo, 381. 


Percello, 390. 


Rideo, 381. 


Mulgeo, 381. 


Peto, 393. 


i Rigeo, 384. 



374 


INDEX. 




Ringor, 399. 


Singultio, 407. 


Sum, 277. 


Turgeo, 381. 


Rodo, 394. 


Sino, 393. 


Sumo, 394. 




Rudo, 393. 


Sisto, 390. 


Suo, 389. 


Ulciscor, 399. 


Rumpo, 388. 


Soleo, 312. 


Supplico, 375. 


Ungo, 394.. 


Ruo, 389. 


Solvo, 389. 




Urgeo, 381. 




Sono, 375. 


Taedet, 454. 


Uro, 394. 


Salio, 404. 


Sorbeo, 381. 


Tango, 387. 


Utor, 399. 


Salve, 447. 


Sortior, 408. 


Tego, 394. 




Sancio, 406. 


Spargo, 394. 


Tendo, 387. 


Vado, 394. 


Sapio, 393. 


Specio, 394. 


Teneo, 382. 


Velio, 390. 


Sarcio, 405. 


Sperno, 392. 


Tergeo, 381. 


Vegeo, 385. 


Scabo, 388. 


Spondeo, 377. 


Tergo, 394. 


Veho, 394. 


Scalpo, 394. 


Spuo, 389. 


Tero, 393. 


Verro, 390. 


Scando, 390. 


Squaleo, 385. 


Texo, 391. 


Venio, 402. * 


Scindo, 390. 


Statuo, 389. 


Timeo, 384. 


Verto, 390. 


Scribo, 394. 


Sterno, 392. 


Tingo, 394. 


Vescor, 399. 


Sculpo, 394. 


Sternuo, 389. 


Tollo, 390. 


Veto, 375. 


Seco, 375. 


Sterto, 391. 


Tondeo, 377. 


Video, 378. 


Sedeo, 378. 


Stmguo, 394. 


Tono, 375. 


Vieo, 380. 


Seligo, 388. 


Sto, 372. 


Torqueo, 381. 


Vigeo, 384. 


Sentio, 405. 


Strepo, 391. 


Torreo, 382. 


Vllesco, 398. 


Sepelio, 406. 


Strideo, 379. 


Traho, 394. 


Vincio, 405. 


Sepio, 405. 


Strido, 390. 


Tremo, 391. 


Vinco, 388. 


Sequor, 399. 


Stringo, 394. 


Tribuo, 389. 


Vlso, 390. 


Sero, 391. 


Struo, 394. 


Triplico, 375. 


Vivo, 394. 


Sero, 392. 


Studeo, 384. 


Trudo, 394. 


Volo, 391, 417. 


Serpo, 394. 


Suadeo, 381. 


Tueor, 383. 


Volvo, 389. 


Sldo, 390. 


Suesco, 392. 


Tumeo, 384. 


Vomo, 391. 


Sileo, 384. 


Sugo, 394. 


Tundo, 387. 


Voveo, 378. 



IKDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



The numbers refer to paragraphs and not to pages. Most of the abbrevia- 
tions used will explain themselves sufficiently : w. == with ; ff. — and 
the following; constr. = construction of; comps. = compounds; suff. = 
suffix ; compar. = comparison of. 



A PRONUNCIATION, 14 ; stems 
of Dec. I. in a, 45. A in 
plural cases, 47 ; in ace. sing, of 
Greek nouns, 127. A changed in 
comp. of verbs, 364-6. A, quan- 
tity of, final, 1471 ; in increments 
of decl., 1445 ; of conj. 1456 ; a 
before vowels, 1425. 

«, aft, abs, w. abl., 470 ; in compds., 
477, 604. 

Abbreviations, 1542. 

Abridged propositions, 1412. 

Abdicare, constr., 915. 

Abhinc, constr., 957. 

Ablative, in Decl. III., 110 ff. ; of 
adj., 194. 

Ablative, meaning and use of, 43, 
872 ff. ; of agent, 878 ; without a, 
879 ; with gerund., 1310; of cause, 
manner, means, 873 ; of compar- 
ison, 895; of description, 888* of 
locality, 933-7 ; for locative, 936 ; 
of measure, 929; of origin, 918; 
of motion from, 941; w. opus, 
usus, 923; of price, 884; w. 
preps., 982 ; of separation, 916 ; 
of time, 949; supine, 1365; of 
gerund, 1340; used as adverb, 
599 ; absolute, 965. 
Absolute clauses, 964; participle, 
1349; ablative, 965; clause as 
abl. absol, 971. 
Absque, w. abl., 470. 
Abstract nouns, 30 ; formation, 549 

ff. 
Abunde, w. gen., 1008. 



-abus, for is, in Dec. I., 56. 

Ac, atque, after compar., 906; for 

rel. pron., 707, 1376, 1038. 
ac- adj. suff., 588. 
Acatalectic verse, 1507, 5. 
Accents, 8. 
Accentuation, 20 ff. 
Accidents, meaning of, 25 ; of adj., 

189 ; of time and person, 333. 
Accidit, constr., 1222. 
Accusative sing, in Dec. III., 110 ff. ; 

plur., 114; of Greek nouns in a, 

127. 
Accusative, meaning and use, 43 
711 ff. ; cognate, 713 ; as comple 
ment, 715 ; in exclamations, 725 
with impers. verbs, 740; object 
712; obj. understood, 720; obj 
with nouns, 723 ; of motion to 
938, 943, 947 ; of nearer defini 
tion, 728 ; of neuter pron., 796 
w. opus, 728 ; w. preps., 981 &. 
w. compound verbs, 718; of time 
and space, 950, 958; reflective, 
732 ; adverbial, 731 ; double, 734 ; 
ace. and gen., 793 ; w. verbs of 
remembering, 789; subj. of inf., 
1136; with inf. by attract., 1158; 
of gerund, 1337; supine, 1360 ff. 



Accusing, verbs of, 793. 

aceo- adj. suff, 562. 

Acephalous verse, 1507, 5 ; Iambic, 

1511. 
Achilhi, gen., 69. 
Active voice, 262; act. and pass. 

constr., 1073. 



376 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 



Ad, w. ace, 496 ; in comps., 478, 
605, 826. 

ada-, patron, suff., 547. 

ades, quantity of penult, 1460. 

Adjectives, form., 189 ff. ; compar. 
of, 223 ff. ; comps. of fero and 
gero, decl., 190; irregular, 194; 
numeral, 201 ; construction, 650 
ff. ; neut. as partitive, 760 ; neut. 
in predicate, 659 ; denoting part 
of an object, 662 ; of plenty, etc., 
776 ; in rel. clauses, 696 ; place 
of, 1387; as subst., 658 ; verbal 
w. gen., 765 ; with abl. supine, 
1366 ; used as adv., 663. 

Adjectival sentences, 1072, 1207, 
1220. 

Adjuncts, 616. 

Admonishing, verbs of, 794. 

Adolescents, comparison of, 224. 

Adonic verse, 1514. 

Adalor, constr., 833. 

Adverbial ace, 731. 

Adverbs, classes of, 461 ; comparison 
of, 462; derivation of, 591 ff. ; 
numeral, 207 ; construction of, 
996 ff. ; w. gen., 1005-8 ; w. adj. 
1001 ; as adj., 670, 997 ; for abl. 
supine, 1368 ; place of, 1390 ; as 
preps., 474. 

Adverbial sentences, 1207, 1220. 

Adversative conjunctions, 492. 

Adversus, w. ace, 469. 

Advising, verbs of, 793. 

Ac, sound of, 14; changed in comps., 
368 ; short before vowels, 1431. 

Aedcs, variation in meaning, 179. 

Aediles, 1546. 

Aeger, w. gen. or local, 779. 

Aemulor, constr., 833. 

Aeneas, decl., 52 ; quantity, 1425. 

Aequalis, w. gen. or dat., 863. 

Aequi, bonl facere, 804. 

Aer, ace. of, 127 ; quantity of, 
1425. 

Aestimo, w. abl., 803. 

Affaiim, w. gen., 1008 ; quantity of, 
1468. 

Afflnis, w. gen. or dat, 863. 

Agent, abl. of, 878; in dat., 844; 
w. gerundive, 847, 1310. 

Ager, decl., 63. 



Agnomen, 1538. 

Ago, comps. of, 338. 

ai, for ae, 55. 

Aio, quantity of, 1425. 

al-, ar- suff., 537, 565. 

al(i-), ar{i~), stems in, 78. 

Alcaic verse, 1517. 

Alcmanian verse, 1512. 

Alexandros, 68. 

Alienus, constr., 862, 8. 

Aliquis, decl., 251 ; use, 1058 ff. 

Alius, decl., 192 ; constr., 664 ; with 
abl. of comparison, 905. 

Alphlos, 68. 

Alter, decl., 191 ; constr., 665 ; quan- 
tity of alter ius, 1425. 

Alvus, gender of, 72. 

Amb, ambi, 486, 614. 

Ambo, decl., 203. 

Amplius, without quam, 900. 

An, interrog., 1107; in single ques- 
tions, 1188. 

Anacoluthon, 1380. 

Anacreontic verse, 1511. 

Analysis of conjugations, 337-340; 
of sentences, 1399 ff. 

Anapaestic verse, 1513. 

Anchiscs, decl., 52. 

Androgeds, decl., 68. 

Animi, locat., 779. 

Annan, 1107, 1187. 

ano-, suff., 588, 573, 577, 581. 

Ante, w. ace, 469 ; in comps., 826 ; 
of time, 954. 

Antecedent, 684 ; omitted, 692. 

Antediem, 1527. 

Antepenult, 12. 

Antequam, 1237, 1241 ff. 

Anlimeria, 1380. 

Antithesis, 15. 

Antithetical words, place of, 1396. 

Anxius, w. gen. or locat., 779. 

Aorist tense, 1093 ; w. temporal par- 
ticles, 1247; in subjunctive, 1168. 
Aphaeresis, 15. 
Apocope, 15. 
Apodosis, 1259. 

Aposiopesis, 1378. 
Apostrophe, 8. 
Apposition, 622 ff. 
Aptus, w. dat., 862; w. qui and 
subj., 1226. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



377 



Apid. w. ace, 469. 

Archaism, 1382. 

Archebulian verse, 1513. 

Archil ochian verse, 1511, 1514. 

ari-, suff, 565. 

ario-, neut. suff., 532 ; adj. suff., 

569. 
Army Roman, 1548. 
Arrangement of words, 1384. 
Arsis and thesis, 1504. 
as, divisions of the, 1556. 
As, final, quantity, 1485. 
As, Greek nouns in, 52. 
as, es, gender of Greek nouns in, 53. 
as, for ae, in gen. sing., 54. 
As, for es, in ace. plur., 133. 
Asc-, esc-, verbs in, 588. 
Asclepiadic verse, 1515. 
Asking, verbs of, constr., 734-6. 
Aspergo, constr. of, 859. 
Aspirates, 7. 
Assertions, mood in, 1077 ; nominal, 

1135. 
Asseverations, 1199. 
Asso, assim, tenses in, 326. 
Asynartete verse, 1507, 1517. 
Asyndeton, 1378. 
at-, suff., 578. 
ater, decl., 190. 
ato-, suff., 572. 
atu-, suff., 535. 
Atque, for quam, 906. 
Attraction of rel. pron., 704 ; of 

ate. w. inf., 1158 ; of subjunctive, 

1291. 
Au, sound of, 14. 
Audiens, w. two dat, 854. 
Autem, place of, 505, 1391. 
Authority, quantity by, 1422. 
Avidus, 767. 
Ax, adj. in, constr., 767. 

B EUPHONIC change of to p, 
1 353 ; final syll. in, 1481. 
Barbiton, decl., 68. 
Belli, locative, 944. 
Bene, comparison of, 824. 
Benefiting, verbs of, constr., 831. 
Bibi, quantity of penult of, 1433. 
bili- suff., 457. 
Bills, adj. in, constr., 862. 
Binding, verbs of, 911. 



Bonus, decl., 190 ; compar., 219 ; 

borii, with facio, etc., 804. 
Bos, decl., 123. 
Brachycatalectic, 1507, 5. 
Brazen age, 1564. 
bro-, suff, 527. 
Bucolic Caesura, 1514. 
bulo- suff., 527. 
bundo-, suff., 555. 

C FINAL, 1484. 
^ Caesura, 1508 ff. 
Cdius, 1425. 
Case, 42; case-endings, 48, 50; signs 

of, 43. 
Capites, constr., 919. 
Cardinal numbers, 202. 
Careo, constr., 909. 
Catalectic, 1507, 5. 
Causa, with gerund, 1330. 
Causal conj., 493, 502 ; sentences, 

1250 ff. 
Cause, abl. of, 873 ; expressed by 

partic, 1353. 
Cave, with inf., for imper., 1114. 
Caveo, constr., 836. 
Censeo, constr., 1208. 
Censors, 1546. 
Chiasmus, 1396. 
Choliambic verse, 1511. 
Choriambic verse, 1515. 
Cir titer, w. ace. 469. 
Circum, w. ace, 469. 
Circumdo, constr., 859. 
Circumflex, 8. 
Circumstances of time, 949 ff. ; of 

measure, 958 ; expressed by abl. 

abs., 966. 
Circumstantial words, place of, 1393. 
Cis, citra, w. ace, 469. 
Clam, w. ace, 473 ; w. abl., 470 ; 

constr., 984. 
Clauses of comp. sentences, 1408. 
Clothing, verbs of, 733, 911. 
Coentdus, active, 1345. 
Coeptus, w. pass, inf., 439. 
Cognate, ace, 413; predicate, 1308. 
Cognomen, 1538. 
Collective nouns, 30 ; constr. of, 

648 ff. ; w. plur. complement, 

679. 
Com (con), in comp., 606, 826. 



378 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Commands, mood in, 1110; nominal, 
1200. 

Communis, constr., 863. 

Commute, constr., 887. 

Comparative adj., dec!, of, 197 ; by 
magis., etc., 227 ; as partitive, 773 ; 
constr., 894 ff. ; two comparatives, 
903; w. adverbs, 1002; in final 
sent., 1210 ; conjunctions, 501. 

Comparare, constr., 857. 

Comparing, verbs of, 855. 

Comparison, rules of, 216 ff. ; irreg. 
and defect., 219 ; by preps., 228. 

Complement, 666; of inf., 1142; 
for dative of end, 851. 

Composition of words, 601 ff. 

Compound verbs, 363 ; w. dat., 828 ; 
feet, 1503; sentences, 616; quan- 
tity of compounds, 1489. 

Concealing, verbs of, 734. 

Concessive conj., 500 ; sentences, 
1281. 

Conclusion of hypoth. per. omitted, 
1277. 

Concord, 619 ; of subst. w. subst., 
622 ; of verb with nom., 634 ; of 
adj. w. subst., 650 ; of rel. w. an- 
tecedent, 683. 

Condition of hypoth. per. omitted, 
1278 ; expressed by partic, 1354. 

Conditional conj., 497 ; sentences, 
1259 ff. 

Confido, constr., 833. 

Congruo, constr., 835. 

Conjugation, 271 ; of sum, 277; first, 
282, 3 ; second, 288, 9 ; third, 
292, 3 ; fourth, 300, 1 ; third in 
-io, 296, 7 ; periphrastic, 328, 9 ; 
analysis of, 331-340 ; remarks on, 
315 ff. ; of irreg. verbs, 410 ff. ; 
of defect, verbs, 434 ff. ; of impers. 
verbs, 451 ff. 

Conjunctions, 488 ff. ; syntax of, 

1369; place of, 1391. 
Conscius, constr , 863. 

Consecutive conj., 498 ; sentences, 
1218; as subject, 1222 ; as object, 
1223 ; as appos., 1224. 

Consequence, conceptions of, 1218. 

Consonants, 6 ff. 

Construction ace. to sense, 678, 698. 

Construing, 1414. 



Consuevi, imperfect, 440. 

Consulo, constr., 836. 

Consuls, 1546. 

Content us, constr., 919. 

Contingit, constr., 1222. 

Contra, w. ace, 469. 

Contracted syll., 1429. 

Contractions in conj., 315 ff. 

Convenio, constr., 836. 

Coordinate conj., 489. 

Copulative conj., 490, 1371. 

Coram, w. abl., 470. 

Correlative adj., 257. 

Countries, names of, gender of, 34 ; 

form of, 581. 
Credo, constr., 833. 
Crime, verbs of, 793. 
cro-, suff., 527. 
Culcuimodi, 254. 
Qujas, 248. 
Cajus, 238, 247. 
culo-, suff., 527 ; dimin., 542. 
Cum, prep. w. abl., 470; affixed, 

473, 986 ; temporal or causal conj., 

see quum. 
cundo-, suff., 559. 
Cupidus, constr., 767. 
Cuplo, constr., 1140, 1204. 
Curare, w. gerundive, 1316. 

D OMITTED before s, 352 ; final, 
, 1481. 

Dactvlic verse, 1514. Dact. iambic, 
1517. 

Duma, gender of, 53. 

Dating, mode of, 1524 ff. 

Danaum, contr., 66. 

Dare, quantity of, 334. 

Dative, 43 ; syntax of, 814 ff. ; w. 
adv. and subst., 870 ; ethical, 838; 
as complement with inf., 675 ; 
of agent, 844, 1310; of end, 848; 
of gerund, 1332; of interest (corn- 
modi aut incommodl), 818 ; of mo- 
tion to, 837, 938 ; of noun in 
appos., 632 ; of possess., 821 ; signs 
of, 815 ; with comp. verbs, 826 ; 
with impers. verbs, 840 ; with 
mm, 820 ff. 

Daughters, names of, 1540. 

Day, civil, div. of, 1535 ; natural, 
1536. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



379 



Days of Roman month, 1528. 
De, w. abl., 470 ; in comps. 479. 
Dea, decl., 57. 
D'tbilis posilio, 1428. 
Decet, constr., 740. 
Declaring, verbs of, 855. 
Declension, 44 ; general rules of, 47 ; 

first, 51 ; gender of, 53 ; second, 

58 If. ; gender of, 71 ; third, 73 if. ; 

gender of, 152 ff. ; fourth, 137 ; 

gender of, 138 ; fifth, 146. Irreg- 
ularities in decl., 54, 64, 101 if., 

139, 177 if. 
Dedl, quantity of, 1433. 
Dcdoeeo, constr., 736. 
Defective nouns, 177 IT. ; adj. 199 ; 

verbs, 434. 
Deliberative subj., 1180. 
D'dos, decl., 68. 
Demanding, verbs of, 734. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 239, 1028 ; 

adverbs, 600. 
Deponent verbs, 304 ff. ; in pass. 

sense, 306 ; partic. act. and pass., 

1346. 
Depriving, verbs of, 911. 
Derivation of adj., 555 ff. ; of subst., 

515 ff.; of verbs, 582 ff. 
Derivative deponents, 582 ; intrans. 

verbs, 583 ; trans, verbs, 582 ; 

quantity of, 1487. 
Description, gen. of, 857 ; abl. of, 

888. 
Desiderative verbs, conj., 407 ; form. 

of, 589. 
Desino, desisto, etc., w. gen., 786. 
Desire, subj. of, 1193. 
Desiring, verbs of, 1204, 1208. 
Diterior, compar., 222. 
Dcus, decl., 67. 
Dexter, 190. 

Dl, dis, insep., 486 ; in comps., 615. 
Diaeresis, 8, 1519. 
Diana, quantity of, 1425. 
Diastole, 1519. 
Die, for dice, 323. 
Dicolon, 1520. 

-dicus, adj. in, compar., 221. 
Dies, decl., 146. 
Differing, verbs of, 829. 
Dignus, constr., 919 ff. ; w. rel., 

1226. 



Dimeter, 1507, 4. 
Diminutives, 540 ; verbs, 590. 
Diphthongs, 5 ; quantity of, 1430. 
Dipodia, 1507, 3. 
Dis, dl, insep., 486, 615. 
Disadvantage, dat. of, 818. 
Disjunctive conj., 491. 
Displeasing, verbs of, dat. w., 833. 
Dissentio, w. dat., 829. 
Dissimilis, constr. of, 862. 
Dissyllabic preterites, quantity of, 

1432 ; supines, 1435. 
Distinctive prom, 243, 1032 ff. ; as 

antecedent, 690. 
Distributive numerals, 207 ff., 961. 
Distrophon, 1521. 
Din, compar., 467. 
Dives, compar., 219. 
Divom, for dlvorum, 66. 
Do, with two datives, 850 ; quantity 

of, 373. 
Doceo, constr., 734. 
Dolet, impers., 842. 
Dornl, locative, 934. 
Dominus, decl., 61. 
Domus, decl., 144 ; constr., 943. 
Donee, constr., 1237, 1240. 
Dono, constr., 859. 
Double questions, 1107, 1186. 
Doubt, quln with expressions of, 

1232 ; subj. in conceptions of, 

1180. 
Due, for duce, 323. 
Diun, temporal, 1237, 8 ; hypoth., 

1259. 
Dummodo, 1259. 
Duo, decl., 203. 
Dutv, power, verbs of in hypoth. per., 

1274: w. imperf. inf., 1132. 
Duumviri, 62. 

E SOUND of, 14 ; nouns in, of 
^ Decl. I., 52 ; of Decl. III., 
99. E in abl., 100 ; e in ace. plur. 
131 ; for e i in Declension V., 149 ; 
adverbs in, 591. E changed to i, 
367; quantity of final, 1473; in 
increments of decl., 1444, 7; of 
conjug., 1456, 8. 

e, prep., see ex. 

Ecce, In, 726, 1011. 

Ecquis, 250, 255. 



380 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Ecthlipsis, 1519. 

editus, constr., 918. 

edoceo, constr., 734. 

Egeo, constr., 907, 910. 

Ego, decl., 231. 

eheu, quantity of, 1425. 

Ei, sound of, 14. 

el, in Decl. V., 44, 148, 1425. 

eid-, patronym., 584. 

-ems, quantity of, 1425. 

Ellipsis, 1378. 

ello- ella-, suff., 544. 

Emo, comps. of, 388. 

en, see ecce. 

En, nouns in, 97; in ace. sing, 128. 

Enallage, 1380. 

Enclitics, 505 ; accent of, 21. 

Endings, of cases, 48, 50 ; of tense 
and person, 333. 

English pronunciation, 11. 

Emm, place of, 505, 1391. 

ensi-, from name of country, 581. 

Entior, entissimus, compar., 221. 

Envying, verbs of, constr., 831. 

Eo, "go," in comp., 414 ; with ace. 
supine, 1361. 

eo-, suff., 560, 574. 

Ed, with gen., 1007. 

Epenthesis, 15. 

Epicene nouns, 41. 

Epistolary tenses, 1100. 

Epulum, heterog., 186. 

Equites, 1543. 

Er, gender of nouns in, 152 ff. ; adj. 
in, 190, 198 ; compar., 218 ; ad- 
verbs in, 595. 

ere, for erunt, 321. 

Ergot, w. ace, 433. 

Ergo, constr., 1009. 

eripio, constr., 857. 

Es, final, quantity of, 1485; nouns 
in, gender of, 152, 159; esin plur. 
cases, 114. 

esc-, suff. incept., 588. 

ess-, verbs in, 587. 

Esso, essim, 326. 

Ethical dative, 838. 

Et- et, 1375. 

Etiam, place of, 1391. 

Etiamsi, etsi, concess., 1281. 

Etsi, in primary sent, 1287. 

eto-, suff., 538. 



Etymology, 24 ff. 

Eu, sound of, 14. 

Eus, Greek nouns in, 69. 

Euphonic changes in conj., 351 ff., 
361 ff. 

evenit, const., 1222. 

Ex, e, w. abl., 470 ; in comps., 607, 
995. 

Exchanging, verbs of, 887. 

Exclamations, in inf., 1159 ; inter- 
jections, 506, 975. 

Expedit, constr., 676, 840. 

Expers, exsors, constr., 777. 

Extents, compar., 222. 

Extra, w. ace, 469. 

Exuo, constr., 733. 

FAC, for face, 323 ; in comps., 
602. 

Fact-questions, 1040, 1103. 

Fames, abl. fame, 99. 

Familia, gen. of, 54. 

Faveo, constr., 833. 

Fearing, verbs of, constr., 1215. 

Feeling, verbs of, constr., 1154, 1258. 

Feet, metrical, 1500 ff. 

Felix, decl., 193. 

Feminine gender, 34. 

Fer, for fere, 323. 

Fero, comps. of, 422. 

Fer tills, constr., 777. 

-ficus, adj. in, compar., 221. 

Fldo, constr., 833. 

Figures of orthography, 15 ; of syn- 
tax, 1377; of prosody, 1519. 

Filling, verbs of, constr., 913. 

Films, decl., 65. 

Final, conj., 496 ; sentences, 1205 ff. ; 
syllables, quantity of, 1471 ff. 

Finite moods, 1077. 

Flo, in comps., 429 ; quantity of, 
1425. 

Fit, constr., 1222. 

Flagito, constr., 736. 

Foreut, 1133. 

For em, for essem, 279. 

Flocct, naucl, etc., 802. 

Fractions, 212. 

Freeing, verbs of, constr., 913. 

Frenum, heterog., 186. 

Frequentative verbs, 584. 

Fretus, constr., 919. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



381 



Fruor, constr., 880; gerundive of, | 

1325. 
Ful, etc., for sum, etc., in perf. tenses, ! 

327. 
Fungcr, constr., 880 ; gerundive of, 

1325. 
Future tense, 1090 ff. ; for imperat., 

1091, 1116; imperat., 1112; inf. 

pass., 330, 1362 ; supplied by fore 

nt, 1133; of subj., 1172; partic, 

362 ; quantity of, 1441. 
Future perfect tense, 1098; inf., 

1134. 
Fuiurum esse, etc., 1133. 



G 



SOUND of, 14, 3 ; changed, 
5 351, 8. 

Galluimbus, 1511. 

Gaudeo, constr., 1154, 1258. 

Gems, gender of names of, 72. 

Gender, 33 ff. ; of Decl. I., 53 ; of 
Dec!. II, 71 ff. ; of Decl. III., 152 
ff. ; of Decl. IV., 138 ; of Decl. 
V., 146. 

Genitive case, 43 ; in Decl. I., 44 ; 
as for ae, 54; es for ae, 52; um 
for arum, 56 ; in Decl. II., 44 ; 
um for drum, 66 ; in Decl. III., 
44; um for ium, 115 ff., 196; in 
Decl. IV., 44 ; uis for us, 139 ; in 
Decl. V., 44 ; e for el, 149. 

Genitive, use of, 744 ff. ; for noun in 
appos., 631 ; in Greek const., 786 ; 
limiting nouns, 751 ; of indef. price, 
799 ; of place, 932 ; w. impers., 
805 ; w. sum, 780; w. verbs, 780 
ff. ; w. verbs of filling, 915 ; varie- 
ties of 745-9 ; w. opus, etc., 928 ; 
w. adj., 765 ff. ; w. adverbs, 1005 
ff. ; of gerund, 1327. 

Genius, decl., 65. 

Georgicon, 70. 

Gerund, 265 ; use of, 1319 ff. ; for abl. 
supine, 1368 ; in pass, sense, 1326. 

Gerundive, 1304 ff. ; as com pi. of 
sum, 1305; for gerund, 1322; of 
intrans. verbs, 1307 ff. ; to express 
possibility, etc., 1314; w. verbs 
of giving, etc., 1315 ; w. gen. of 
pers. pron., 1017; of fungor, 
fruor, etc., 1325. 
Glorior, gerundive as pass., 1325. 



Glyconic verse, 1515. 
Golden age, 1562. 
Governing word, place of, 1389. 
Government, 620, 709. 
Greek nouns in Decl. I., 52 ; in Decl. 
II., 68 ; in Decl. III., 124 ff. 

HA BREATHING, 1424. 
^ Hadria, gender of, 53. 
Haud seio an, 1188. 
Habeo, w. inf., 1318 ; w. perf. partic, 

1358 ; fut. impera. for pres., 1117. 
Hei, constr., 727. 
Hellenism, 1383. 
Hendecasyllabic verse, 1512, 3. 
Hendiadys, 1379. 
Hepthemimeris, 1507, 6. 
Heroic verse, 1514. 
Heteroclite nouns, 185. 
Heterogeneous nouns, 186. 
Hen, 975. 

Hexameter verse, 1507, 4. 
Hie, decl., 239 ; contrasted w. other 

demonstr. pron., 240, 1028. 
Hicce, 241. 

Hindering, verbs of, constr., 1231. 
Hipponactean verse, 1511, 2. 
Historical inf., 1137; pres., 1082, 

1167; tenses, 1163. 
Horace, metres of, 1522. 
Hortor, constr., 1208. 
Hue, w. gen., 1007. 
Humus, gender of, 72 ; humi, locat., 

944. 
Hypallage, 1380. 
Hyperbaton, 1381. 
Hypercatalectic, 1507, 5. 
Hypothetical Period, 1259 ff. ; in 

drat, obi., 1303. 
Hysteron proteron, 1381. 

I SOUND of, 14 ; for j, 7 ; for ii, 
<) 64 ; for ie, 65 ; stems in nom. 
s. of, 79 ; in i or a cons., 83 ; for 
win gen., 69 ; for el, 149 ; quantity 
of final, 1478 ; I before a vowel, 
1425 ; in increments of decl., 1444, 
8 ; in increments of verbs, 1456, 9. 

ia-, suff., 550. 

iad-, f. patron, suff., 547. 

iada-, m. patron, suff., 547. 



3S2 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 



Iambic metre, 1511 ff. 

iano-, suff., 573. 

warn, for iebam, 325. 

ibo, etc., for iam, etc., 325. 

icio- (icio-), suff., 561, 2. 

ico-, suff., 563, 574, 580. 

Ictus, 1504, 3. • 

id-, f. patron, suff., 548. 

Id temporis, etc., 953. 

ida-, m. patron, suff., 547. 

idem, clecl., 243 ; use, 1034 ; w. dat., 
869 ; w. rel. pron., 690. 

Ides, 1526. 

ides- 3 quantity of, 1460. 

ido-, suff., 556. 

Idoneus qui, 1226. 

ie-, suff., 529. 

ler, for i, 325. 

Igitur, place of, 1391. 

Ignobiles, 1545. 

Ignosco, constr., 833. 

It, contr. into I, 64. 

Hi-, suff., 539, 557, 564. 

Ilion, 68. 

ilia-, verbs in, 590. 

Illative conj., 494. 

Ille, decl., 239 ; use of, 1029. 

lUie, 242. 

illo- ilia-, suff., 544. 

Im, in ace. sing., 109 ff. ; for am in 
pres. subj., 325. 

humane quantum, 1190. 

Imparisyllaba, 77. 

Impedio, constr., 1236. 

Imperative, 264; use, 1078, 1110; 
in hypoth. per., 1263. 

Imperfect tenses, 266 ; imperfect 
(past) use of, 1087 ff. 

Impcritus, constr., 767. 

Impero, constr., 833 ; 1203. 

Impersonal verbs, 452 ; with parti- 
cipial forms, 455 ; English of, 457 ; 
w. ace, 740 ; of feeling, 805 ; of 
interest, 809 ; w. dat., 840 ; pas- 
sive, 841, 1307, 8. 

Impleo, constr., 913. 

Impos, constr., 777. 

Imprudens, constr., 767. 

-in, in Greek ace, 

In, w. ace. or abl"., 471, 987 ; in 
comps., 481, 608, 826. 

Ina-, suff., 533, 534, 548. 



Inceptive verbs, 395, 588. 

Iuclytus, corhpar., 223. 

Increments of nouns, 1442 ff. ; of 
verbs, 1455 ff. 

Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 35 ; 
nouns, 183 ; adj., 199. 

Indefinite pronouns, 249, 251 ; use 
of, 1047 ff 

Indicative mood, 264, 1078 ff. ; in 
nom. quest., 1189 ; with sunt qui, 
etc., 1228 ; in causal sent., 1250 ; 
in hypoth. per., 1261 ; in temp, 
sent., 1237; in concess. sent., 
1281 ; for attracted subj., 1293. 

Indigco, constr., 910. 

Indignus, constr., 919 ff. 

Indirect speech, 1295 ff. 

Indirect questions, see Nominal Ques- 
tions. 

Induo, constr., 859. 

Indulgeo, constr., 833. 

Inferus, compar., 222. 

Infinitive mood, 264, 1118 ff. ; tenses 
of, 1126 ff. ; as subject, 1147; as 
object, 721, 858, 1148; for gen., 
1121; for dat., 1122; for abl., 
1123; with prep., 1124; with sub- 
ject ace, 286, 1135 ; without subj., 
1139; of purpose, 1160; in nom. 
ques., 1296, C. ; in exclamations, 
1159; w. verbs of feeling, 1154; 
for quln and subj., 1234 ; for gen. 
of gerund, 1331 ; for abl. supine, 
1368 ; for gerund, 1317 ; w. verbs 
of command, 1153. 

Infra, w. ace, 469. 

Injuring, verbs of, constr., 831. 

Inops, constr., 777. 

Ino-, suff, 567, 573, 576. 

Inseparable preps., 486. 

Instar, constr., 1009. 

Integer, w. locat., 779. 

Inter, w. ace, 469 ; in comps., 609, 
826. 

Inter dado, constr., 859. 

Interest, constr., 809. 

Interest, expressed by dat., 814-7. 

Interior, w. ace, 469 ; compar., 222. 

Interjections, 507, 975, 6. 

Interrogative pron., 246 ; use of, 
1040 ff. ; conjunctions, 503 ; par- 
ticles, 1103. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



383 



Intra, w. ace, 469 ; compar., 222. 
Intrans. verbs, 263 ; used impers., 

453 ; in gerundive, 1307-9 ; used 

as transitive, 716 ; compound w. 

ace, 719, 830. 
Invideo, constr., 833. 
io- 5 suff., 524, 536, 566 ; io-, 574. 
lo, verbs in, of Conj. III., 293-5. 
ion-, suff., 520. 
Ionic metre, 1516. 
Ipse, decl., 243 ; use of, 1035 ; constr., 

682, 1039. 
irascor, constr., 831. 
Irregular nouns, 177 ff. ; adj., 199 ff. ; 

comparison, 219 ff. ; principal parts 

of verbs, 371-409; verbs, 410- 

450. 
trl, in fut. inf. pass., 330. 
Is, decl., 243 ; use of, 1033, 690. 
Is, final, quantity of, 1486 ; gen. of 

Decl. III., 74. 
isc— , inceptive suff., 588 
Islands, gender of names of, 34. 
Isochronous feet, 1504. 
iss-, verbs in, 587. 
Isle, decl., 239; use of, 1028, 1031. 
Istic, decl., 242. 
ita-, verbs in, 584. 
Iter, decl., 104. 
Ithyphallicus, 1512. 
Ito-, suff., 572. 
Hum, from eo, 1440. 
Itus, adv. in, 597. 

Ium, or um, in gen. plur., 115, 196. 
Ius, proper names in, 65. 
ius, gen., 192, 1425. 



K 



RARE in Latin, 7. 
. Kalendae, 1526 ff. 



j 



OR /, 7; makes vowel long, 
1426. 

Jam,jamdiu, w. imperf. tenses, 1083. 
Jecur, gen. of, 105. 
Jesus, decl., 183. 
Jocus, heterog., 186. 
Jubeo, constr., 834, 1203. 
Jugum, quantity of comps. of, 1427. 
Jf/piter, decl., 123. 
Jirfdus, active, 1345. 
Jusjurandum, decl., 176. 
Juvenilis, abl. of, 113. 
Juvenis, compar., 224. 
Juvo, constr., 834. 
Juxta, w. ace, 469. 



L NOUNS in, nom. of, 91 ; gen- 
^ der of, 168; final quantity 
of, 1481. 

Labials, 6. 

Laedo, constr., 834. 

Latum, formation of, 390. 

Legati, 1554. 

Legion, 1549. 

lento-, suff, 571. 

Lego, comps. of, 388. 

Letters, division of, 3-7. 

Liber, decl., 63. 

Llbero, constr., 913. 

Llberlini, 1543. 

Zibet, constr., 840. 

Licet, constr., 676, 840, 1144; con- 
cess, conj., 1282. 

Likeness, adj. of, 860. 

Limitation, abl. of, 889. 

-Limus, superl. in., 220. 

Linguals, 6. 

Liquids, 7. 

Literature, ages of, 1561 ff. 

Liium, quantity of, 1436. 

Loading, verbs of, 911. 

Locality, exp. by abl., 938. 

Locative, 779, 934. 

Locutio praegnans, 989. 

Longius, without quam, 900. 

Longum, aequum est, etc., 1275. 

M CHANGES of, 354, 360 ; final 
^ quantity of, 1481 ; elision 

of, 1519, 2. 
-Ma, dat. and abl. plur. of Greek 

nouns in, 135. 
Magis, maxime, in comparison, 227. 
Magnus, compar., 219. 
Making, verbs of, with complement, 

715. 
Male, comps. of, 824 ; quantity of, 

592. 
Malo, constr., 1204. 
Malus, compar., 219. 
Mando, constr., 833. 
Manner, means, etc., by abl., 873 ; 

expressed by partie, 1352. 
Masculine gender, 33. 
Material nouns, 30. 



384 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 



Mater familias, decl., 176. 

Means* abl. of, 873; by abl. abs., 

966; by partic., 1352. 
Measure, abl. of, 929 ; circumstances 

of, 958 ; Roman, 1559. 
Medeor, constr., 833. 
Medius, designating part, 664. 
Melos, plur., of, 131. 
Memini, constr., w. imperf. inf., 1131. 
Memory, verbs of, 788. 
men-, suff., 525. 
mento- suff., 526. 
Met, joined to pronouns, 233. 
Metathesis, 15. 
Metre, 1507. 

Metres, kinds of, 1507, 2. 
Metros, Greek nouns in, gender, 72. 
Mduo, constr., 833, 1215. 
Mens, decl., 190. 
Mditiae, locat., 944. 
Mille, decl. and use of, 204. 
Mino, for tor, 325. 
Minor, minus, without quam, 900. 
Minarl, constr., 831. 
Mir or quod, 1258. 
Ml rum quantum, 1190. 
Mlsereor, constr., 783. 
Miseret, constr., 805. 
Mitis, deck, 196. 
Mixed numbers, 213. 
Mobile nouns, 40 ; in appos., 624. 
Moderor, constr., 833. 
Modification, 1402 ; of subject, 1401 ; 

of predicate, 1405. 
Modo, hypoth. conj., 1259. 
Moneo, constr., 796, 8. 
Money, Roman, 1555. 
monia-, suff., 554. 
Monocolon, 1520. 
Monometer, 1507, 4. 
Months, Roman, 1524. 
Moo Is, use of, 1007 if.* • 
Multare, constr., 795. 
Multiplicative numerals, 210. 
Multus, compar., 219. 
Mutes, 7. 

Mute and liquid, 1428. 
Mutare, constr., 887. 

""^T NOM. of stems in, how made, 
-1-N ^ 92; gender of nouns in, 
168; final syll. in, 1484. 



Name, dat. of, 632. 

Names, Roman, 1538. 

Names of towns, constr. of, 931-941. 

Ncdus, w. abl., 918. 

Nauta, etc., gender of, 53. 

Ne, negative prefix, 487. 

Ne, conjunction, final, 1207 ; con- 
cessive, 1283; w. imperat., 1113; 
w. potential subj., 1177 ; w. delib. 
subj., 1180. 

Ne, interrog. particle, 1103 ff., 
1186. 

Nee, neque, 1375. 

Necne, 1107, 1187. 

Negatives, 998. 

Negative indefinites in final and con- 
sec, sent., 1225. 

Nemo, 256. 

Nequam, indecl., 199 ; compar., 219. 

Ne- quidem, 1390. 

Nescio an, 1188. 

Nescio quis, etc., 1189. 

Neuter, deck, 191. 

Neuter adj., as adv., 596 ; pron. used 
absolutely, 717 ; w. impers. verbs, 
842 ; w. part, gen., 762 ; comple- 
ment to m. or f. noun, 654, 5. 

Neuter nouns, 35 ; in Deck II., 58 ; 
in Deck III., 168 ff. ; in Decl. IV., 
137. 

Neutral passive verbs, 314. 

Neve, neu, 1113. 

Night, divisions of, 1537. 

Nisi (nl), hypoth. conj., 1259. 

Nltor, constr., 880. 

Nobiles, 1545. 

Noceo, constr., 833. 

Nolo, constr., 1204 ; noli, for neg. 
imper., 1114. 

Nomen, 1538. 

Nominal sentences, 1064 ; assertions, 
1135 ; questions, 1180, 1296, C. ; 
commands, 1200 ; nominal incep- 
tives, 397. 

Nominative of Deck III., how formed 
from stems, 86-89 ; neut. plur. of 
adj., 195. 

Nominative, syntax of, 633 ff. ; com- 
plement of inf., 674, 1145; subj. 
ofinfin., 641; for voc, 978. 
' Non, for ne, 1198. 

Non habeo, etc., 1229. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



385 



Non modo, solum, etc., 1000. • 

Non quo, quod, etc., 1256. 

Nones, 1526. 

Nos, for ego, 1015. 

Nostras, 248. 

Nostrl, nostrum, distinction, 773, 
1016. 

Nostrl, vestri, w. gerundive, 1017. 

Notation by letters, 205. 

Nouns, sorts of, 29 ff. ; abstract, 30 ; 
collective, 30 ; common, 29 ; epi- 
cene, 41 ; material, 30 ; mobile, 
40; proper, 28; irregular, 177 ff.; 
defective in case, 179 ; in number, 
177; variable, 184; in sense, 179; 

. heteroclite, 185 ; heterogeneous, 
186. 

Novl, as imperf., 440. 
; Novus, compar., 223. 

Ns, participles in, decl. of, 193. 

Nubo, constr., 833. 
; Nullus, decl., 191. 

Num, interrog., 1105. 

Number, 42 ; of adj., 652 ; of apposi- 
tion, 625. 
| Numeral adj., 201, 207 ; adverbs, 
1 207 ; signs, 205. 

Nummum, for nummorum, 66. 

Nupta est, 1345. 

O SOUND of, 14 ; stems in, 45, 
^ 59; adverbs in, 594; inter- 
jection, 975 ; final quantity of, 975 ; 
in increments, 1444, 6 ; in comps., 
1496. 

Ob, w. ace, 469 ; in comps., 610, 
826. 

Obejdng, verbs of, constr., 831. 

Object, w. ace, 712 ; remote in dat., 
816. 

Objective genit, 753. 

Oblique cases, 42. 

Obliviwor, constr., 788. 

Obsto, constr., 833. 

vcior, compar., 222. 

Octouarius, 1511. 

odog, comps. of, gender of, 72. 

Oe, sound of, 14. 

Offendo, constr., 834. 

Officers of army, 1553. 

Ohe, quantitv of, 1425. 

Olll, for #ft,*239. 



olo-, ola-, suff., 543 

Omnium vestrum, 1016. 

on, in Greek gen. piur., 134. 

ona-, f. patron, suff., 548. 

Opus, constr., 923-8 ; as comple- 
ment, 673 ; w. gen., 764. 

Optative subj., 1193. 

Optimates, 1545. 

or- suff., 516. 

ordtio obllqua, 1295 ff. 

Ordinal numbers, 2#6 ; w. qui$que f 
1054. 

Origin, abl. of, 918. 

oro, constr., 736. 

Oriundus, ortus, constr., 918, 9. 

Orphem, decl., 69. 

Orthography, 2 ff. 

Os, on, Greek nouns in, 68. 

Os, for is in gen. sing. 125 ; final, 1485. 

oso-, suff., 570. 

osus, active, 438, 1345. 

PAENE, in hypoth. per., 1276. 
Palam, w. abl., 470. 

Palatals, 6. 

^Pan, gen. and ace. of, 125, 7. 

Panthus, voc. of, 70. 

Par, decl., 194, 5. 

Paragoge, 15. 

Pareo, constr., 833. 

Parisyllaba, 76. 

Parsing, rules for, 1419. 

Partheniac verse, 1513. 

Participles, 265 ; syntax of, 1343 ff. ; 
perfect of dep. verbs, 1344. 

Particles, 460 ff. 

Partim, constr., 665. 

Partitives, constr. of, 771 ; partitive 
gen., 760 ; partitive understood, 
774. 

Parum, w. gen., 1008 ; compar., 463. 

Parv us, compar., 219. 

Passive voice, 262, 1073 ; w. oblique 
cases, 1075. 

Potior, constr., 1204. 

Patres, 1543; conscriptl, 1544. 

Patrials, 579. 

Patronymics, 546 ; quantity of, pe- 
nult of, 1460, 1. 

Pause, Caesural, 1508. 

Pelagus, decl., 70, 131. 

Pendeo, w. gender, 72 ? 785. 



3S6 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Penelope, decl., 52. 

Penes, w. ace, 469. 

Penna, 51. 

Pentameter, 1507, 4 ; verse, 1514. 

Penthemimeris, 1507, 6. 

Penult, 12 ; quantity of, 1460 ff. 

Per, w. ace., 469; in comp., 482, 

610. 
Per me stat, etc., 1236. 
Perceiving, verbs of, constr., 1152. 
Perfect tenses, 266. 
Perfect formation, 344-356 ; use ot 
present, 1092 ; aorist, 1093 ; subj. 
as aorist, 1168. 
Perfect partic. passive, w. ojjus, 926 ; 

active supplied by quum, 1245. 
Period, 616; hypothetical, 1260 ff. 
Periphrasis, 1379. 
Periphrastic conj., 328, 9 ; in hypoth. 

per., 1273. 
Perthes, w. gen., 767. 
Persons, 31 ; order of, 647 ; acci- 
dents of, 333. 
Personal pron., 231 ; use of, 1013 if. 
Persuadeo, constr., 833. 
Pertaedet, constr., 805. 
Pelo, constr., 738. 
Ph, 7. 

Phalaecian verse, 1513. 
Pherecratian verse, 1515. 
Phrases, w. constr. of verbs, 1157. 
Piget, constr., 805. 
Place, circumstances of, 931 ff. 
Placeo, constr., 833. 
Plebs, 1543. 

Plenty, verbs of, constr., 907. 
Planus, constr., 776. 
Pleonasm, 1379. 
Pluperfect, use of, 1096 ff. ; in epist. 

style, 1100. 
Plural, 42 ; wanting, 177 ff. ; in app. 

to two singulars, 626. 
Pins, decl., 197 ; without quam, 900. 
Poenitet, constr., 805. 
Polysyndeton, 1379. 
Pone, w. ace, 469. 
Populares, 1545. 
Posco, constr., 736 ff. 
Position, 1425, 6. 
Positive degree, wanting, 222; w. 

adverbs, 1001. 
Possessive gen., 780, 2; pron., 236 ; 



for gen. of pers., 756 ; w. gen. in 
appos., 628; with refert, interest, 
809. 
Possessor, dat. of, 821. 
Post, w. ace, 469; in comps., 826; 

of time, 954. 
Posterns, compar., 222. 
Postpositive words, 505. 
Postquam, w. aor., 1094 ; temporal, 

1237, 1249. 
Postrldie, 1010. 
Potential subj., 1177 ff. 
Potior, constr., 880 ff. ; gerundive of, 

1325. 
Prae, w. abl., 470; in comps. 483, 
826 ; short before a vowel, 1431. 
Praeditus, constr., 919. 
Praenomen, 1538. 
Praeter, w. ace, 469. 
Praetor, 1546. 
Pr census, active, 1345. 
Predicate, 616; adj., 666; gram- 
matical and logical, 1404. 
Prefix, 512. 

Prepositions, 468 ; as adv., 1012 ; m 
cire of time, 953 ; in comp. 603, 
993 ; of motion to omitted, 948, 
992; representing positive of adj., 
222 ; understood, 717 ; w. abl. 470, 
982; w. ace, 469, 981; w. ace 
and abl., 471, 987; w. ace of 
gerund, 1337; w. abl. of gerund, 
1340. 
Present tense, 1080 ff; imperat., 

1111. 
Preterite verbs, 434. 
Preterites of two syllables, long, 

1432 ; short, 1433. 
Priapean verse, 1514. 
Price, constr, of, 1005 ; gen. of, 799. 
Pridie, 1005. 

Primary words, 514; sentence, 1067. 
Primus, place of, 1387. 
Principal tenses, 1163. 
Principal sentences, 1163. 
Priusquam, 1237, 1241. 
Pro, w. abl., 470 ; in comps., 484 ; 
quantity of, 1493 ; w. quam, 904. 
Procul, w. abl., 474. 
Profit, words of, 860. 
Proh, interj., 975. 
Proliibeo, constr., 916, 1204. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



387 



Prolepsis, 722. 

Pronouns, 230 ff. ; syntax of, 1013 

ff.-; demonstr., 1028 ; distinct., 

1032 ; indef., 1047 ff. ; interrog., 

1040 ff. ; per**, 1013 ; poss., 1027 ; 

reflect., 1018 ff. ; change of in 

drat, obi, 1296, H. 
Pronunciation of Latin, 11-14. 
Prope, w. ace, and abl., 474 ; in 

hypoth. per., 1276. 
Proper names, 28; place of, 1394. 
Propior, proximus, constr., 867. 
Propius, constr., 863. 
Propter, w. ace, 469. 
Prosody, 1421 ff. 
Prospicio, constr., 833. 
Prosthesis, 15. 
Provideo, constr., 833. 
Proximus, constr., 867. 
Prudent, decl., 193 ; constr., 767. 
Protasis, 1259. 
Puer, dec!., 61. 
Pudet, constr., 805. 
Punctuation, 9. 
Punishment, verbs of, 793. 
Purpose, concept, of, 1205 ; modes 

of expressing, 1214. 

QU, changed, 351. 
Quadratus, 1511. 
Quaero, constr., 738. 
Quaestors, 1546. 
Qucilis, constr., 706. 
Quam, after comparatives, 897-9 ; 

omitted, 900 ; w. positive, 1004 ; 

w. superl., 229, 1003; w. ante, 

post, 955. 
QuamdiR, 1237. 
Quamquam, concess. conj., 1284, 5 ; 

in primary sent., 1288. 
Quamvls, quantumvxs, concess. conj., 

1282, 6 ; w. adv., 1289. 
Quando, temporal, 1237 ; causal, 

1250. 
Quandoquidem, 1250. 
Quantity, marks of, 8 ; rules of, 16 

ff., 1422 ff. ; of stem-vowel of 

verbs, 334; of perf. subj. act., 

335. 
Quantus, constr., 706. 
Quasi, in hypoth. per., 1277. 
Que, conj., 1375. 



Questions, mood in, 1101 ; of fact, 
1040, 1103 ; of words, 1040 ; nom- 
inal, 1182. 

Qui, decl., 245 ; constr., 683 ff. ; in 
final sent., 1207 ; in consec. sent., 
1225 ff. ; in causal sent., 1251 ; in 
condit. sent., 1280 ; for abl. sing., 
245. 

Quia, causal conj., 1250 ; w. inf., 
1301. 

Quicumque, general rel., 699. 

Quidam, indef. decl., 251 ; use of, 
1056 ff. 

Quidem, place of, 505, 1391. 

Quilibet, quivis, use of, 1055. 

Quin, constr., 1220, 30 ff. ; w. indie, 
and imperat., 1235. 

Quippe qui, 1253 ; w. indie, 1254. 

Quis, decl., 246, 249 ; use of, 104, 1, 
1048. 

Quispiam, use of, 1060. 

Quisquam, 1061. 

Quisque, constr., 681, 1050 ff. 

Quisquis, general rel, 699. 

Quitum, quantity of, 1436. 

Quo, w. gen., 1007 ; w. subj., 1213 ; 
final conj., 1207. 

Quoad, 1237, 1238. 

Quod, causal, 1250; w. verbs of 
feeling, 1258. 

Quominus, consec. conj., 1220, 1236. 

Quoniam, causal, 1250. 

Quoque, place of, 505, 1391. 

Quot, correl., 257 ; constr., 706. 

Quoties, temporal, 1237. 

Quum, temporal, 1237, 1244 ff. ; 
consec, 1247; causal, 1250; con-. 
cess., 1282. 

Quum interim, w. inf., 1301. 

R DROPPED or changed, 355, 
« 361 ; stems in, nomin. of, 
93 ; final, quantity of, 1481. 
Rasirum, heterog., 186. 
Ratum, quantity of, 1436. 
Re-, red-, in comps., 486, 615. 
Re, for ris, 322. 
Reciprocal use of pron., 1019. 
Recordor, constr., 788 ff. 
Rectum est, in hypoth. per., 1275. 
Redditives, 706. 
Redundant adj., 200. 



388 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Reduplicated perfects, 344-7 ; quan- 
tity of, 1434. 

Re luplication of pron., 234. 

Refert, constr., 809. 

Reflective pron., 232 ; 1018 ; verbs, 
305 ; accus., 732. 

Refusing, verbs of, 1231. 

Regno, w. gen., 786. 

Rcgnum decl., 63. 

Recjo, constr., 834. 

Relative pronoun, 245 ; constr., 683 
if. ; attract., 704 ; for pers. or de- 
rnonstr., 701 ; in agr. w. comple- 
ment, 695 ; for two cases, 700 ; in 
final sent., 1207, 1213; in consec. 
sent., 1220 ; in causal sent., 1251 ; 
in hypotb. per., 1280 ; place of, 
1388; similar forms of interrog. 
and rel., 1192. 

Relative participle, 1348. 

Reliquum est, constr., 1222. 

Reminiscor, constr., 788. 

Remote object, 816. 

Resist o, constr., 833. 

Resolution of sentences, 1418. 

Respondeo, constr., 833. 

Rlspublica, decl., 167. 

Rhetorical questions, 1296, C. 

Rhythm, 1507. 

Rivers, gender of names of, 33. 

Rogo, constr., 734. 

Ruclis, constr., 767. 

Rus, constr., 943. 

Rarl, locative, 934. 

Rulum, quantity of, 1436. 



s 



sound of, 14; nom. sing, of 
a stems in, 94 ; changed to r, 

7 82. 
Sacer, compar., 223. 
Saef>e, compar., 467. 
Sapphic verse, 1512. 
Satago, constr., 783. 
Satis, comps. of, 824 ; compar., 466. 
Salur, decl, 62. 

Satus, constr., 918; quantity of, 1436. 
Scanning, 1518. 
Scarceness, verbs of, 907. 
Scazon, 1511. 
Seidl, quantity of, 1433. 
Sclto, for pres. imperat, 1117. 
Se, 486 ; suus, constr., 1020 ff. 



Secondary sentences, 1067. 

Secundum, w. ace, 469. 

Semi-deponents, 312. 

Senarian verse, 1507. 

Senex, compar., 224. 

Sentences, kinds of, 616 ; 1063 ff. as 
subj., 640, 1222; as. obj., 1223; 
as appos., 1224. 

Separation, abl. of, 986. 

Sequence of tenses, 1164 ; of inter- 
rog. part., 1109, 1186. 

Servio, constr. of, 831. 

Sestertius, 1557. 

Si, sin, in dat. plur. 

Si, hypoth. conj., 1259; omitted, 
1264, 1279. 

Silver age, 1563. 

Sim in perf. subj., 326. 

Similk, constr., 863. 

Simple feet, 1501 ; sentence, 616. 

Simodian verse, 1513. 

Simidac, temporal, 1237. 

Sine, w. abl., 470. 

Singular, 42 ; wanting, 178. 

Sino, constr., 1204. 

Siiio, constr., 716. 

Situm, quantity of, 1436. 

Slaves, names of, 1541. 

So, or sso, for future, 326. 

Solus, decl., 191. 

Solvcndo esse, 1334. 

Sor- for tor-, suff., 519. 

Sotadic verse, 1516. 

Speech, parts of, 26. 

Spirants, 7. 

Static words, with ace, 729. 

Stalum, quantity, 373, 1436. 

Statuo, constr., 1208. 

Stem, 45, 513 ; of decl., 45 ; of verbs, 
272 ; strengthened, 342, 3. 

Sietl, still, quantity of, 1433. 

Strophe, 1521. 

Stwieo, constr., 833. 

Sf.cddeo, constr., 833. 

Sub, w. ace. or abl., 471, 487 ; in 
comps., 485, 612, 826. 

Subject, 616; of finite verbs, 635; 
omitted, 636; of infin., 1135; 
omitted, 1138; of different pers., 
646 ; of impers. verbs, 637 ; place 
of, 1386; grammatical and logical, 
1400. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



SS9 



Subjective genitive, 753. 
Subjunctive mood, 264, 1078, 1161; ! 
uses of; 1174 ff.,forimperat., 1114, 
1198; of purpose, 1 205 ; in causal 
sent., 1251 ; inconsec.sent., 1218 ; 
in concess. sent., 1282 ; in nom. 
commands, 1200 ; in hypoth. pe- 
riod, 1265, 7; in temporal sent., 
1238 ff. ; by attraction, 1291 ; 
causal in quoted reasons, 1255. 
Subordinate conj., 495. 
Substantive omitted, 648 ; as adj., 

661. 
Subter, w. ace. or abl., 471, 987. 
Suffix, 511. 

Sul, decl., 232 ; use of, 1018 ff. 
Sum, comps. of, 279; w. two dat., 

850. 
Summits, etc., place of, 1387. 
Sunt qtti, etc., 1227. 
Super, w. ace. or abl., 471, 987 ; in 

comps., 826. 
Superlative degree, 217; of eminence, 
215 ; formed by adv., 227 ; as par- 
titive, 773 ; w. quisque, 1052 ; w. 
adverbs, 1003. 
Super us, compar., 222. 
Supines, 255; 357-360; use of, 1360 

ff. ; quantity of, 1435, 6. 
Supra, w. ace, 469. 
Syllables, division into, 12, 13. 
Synaeresis, 1519. 
Synaloepha, 1519. 
Synapheia, 1519, 2. 
Syncope, 15. 
'Synecdoche, 1380. 
Synesis, 1380. 
Syntax, 616 ff. ; of pronouns, 1013 

ff.; of the verb, 1063 ff. 
Systole, 1458, 1519. 
Syzygy, 1507. 

T sound of, 14; nom. sing, of 
stems in, 88; quantity of 
final syll. in, 1481. 
Taedei, constr., 805. 
Talpa, gender of, 53. 
Taking away, verbs of, 855. 
Tamen, place of, 1391. 
Tametsl, concessive, 1281. 
tat-, suff, 552. 
Teaching, verbs of, constr., 734. 



Tempero, constr., 833, 5. 

Temporal conj., 499, 1237; sent, 

1237. 
Tener, decl., 190. 

Tenses, formation of, 280 ; in or. obi., 
1296 I; not-past, 1163 : of indie, 
1080 ff. ; of infin., 1126 ff. ; of op- 
tat, subj., 1196 ; of subj.. 1162 ; 
in hypoth. per., 1265, 7; past, 
1163 ; sequence of, 1164. 
Tenus, w. gen., 985 ; w. abl., 470. 
ter- adv. in, 593, 5. 
Tetrameter, 1507, 4. 
Tetrastrophon, 1521. 
Ill, 7. 
Theme, 46. 
Thesis, 1504. 

Threatening, verbs of, constr., 831. 
tia-, suff., 551. 
tim, adv. in, 598. 

Time, circumstances of, 949 ; by abl. 
abs., 966; by partic, 1351; by 
temporal sent., 1237 ff. 
Timeo, constr., 833, 836, 1215. 
tion- suff, 520. 
Tmesis, 15. 

To for tor, in imperat., 325. 
tor- suff, 517. 
Toius, decl., 191. 
Towns, names of, constr., 932 ff. ; 

gender of, 34. 
Trans, w. ace. 469; in comps., 613. 
Transitive verbs, with ace, 712; 

used impersonally, 1312. 
Trees, gender of names of, 34. 
TribunI plebis, 1546. 
trie- suff, 518. 
Tricolon, 1520. 
Triememer, 1507, 6. 
Trimeter, 1507, 4. 
Tristrophon, 1521. 
Trochaic verse, 1512. 
Tu, decl., 521. 
tu-, suff., 521. 
tudon-, suff, 552. 
Tuli formation, 390 ; quantity, 1433. 
tura-, suff., 523. 
Two nom., w. verb, 643. 

U sound of, 14 ; as w, 5 ; stems 
^ in v, 45 ; nom. sing, in u, 



390 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



137 ; quantity of final syll. in, 
1480 ; of increments in, 1449. 



u for ui, 139. 



Ubi, w. gen., 1007; temporal, 1237. 

Uis for us, 139. 

Ullzei, gen., 69. 

Utlus, decl., 191 ; use of, 1062. 

ulo-, ula- suff., 528, 541, 545, 559. 

Ultra, w. ace., 469 ; compar., 222. 

urn for drum, 56 ; for drum, 66. 

Um or ium, 115 ff., 196. 

Unde, final, 1213. 

(Indus for endus, 324. 

vmus, decl., 222 ; use of plur., 203. 

lira-, suff., 535. 

uri-, verbs in, 589. 

Us, fern, nouns in, 72 ; quantity of 
final syllables in, 1486. 

usus, constr., 923-8 ; w. gen., 764. 

Ut, final, 1207; consec, 1220; con- 
cess., 1283 ; ut qui, causal, 1253 ; 
ut ne for ne, 1211 ; ut w., positive 
adj., 1004. 

Titer, decl., 191; as interrog., 1045; 
as rel., 1046; comps. of, 191. 

Uterque, decl., 191 ; constr., 681. 

uto- suff., 572. 

utor, constr., 880 ; gerundive of, 1325. 

Utinam, w. subj., 1195. 

Utpote qui, 1253. 

Utrum, interrog., 1107, 1186. 

V supplied by u, 7. 
5 Vacat, constr., 676. 

Vae, constr., 727. 

Valuing, verbs of, constr., 799. 

Vannus, gender of, 72. 

Ve, prefix, 487. 

Venire in mentem, constr., 791. 

Verb, the, 258 ff. ; voice of, 261; 
moods of, 264 ; tenses of, 266 ff. ; 
stems of, 274 ; conjugation of reg- 
ular, 271 ff. ; principal parts of, 
275 ff. ; analysis of, 333 ff. ; syntax 
of, 1063 ff. ; omitted, 639, 720. 

Verba sentiendi, 1152. 



Verbal inceptives, 396. 

Vereor, constr., 1215. 

Vera, place of, 505, 1391. 
Versification, 1499 ff. 

Versus, w. ace, 474. 

Verto, w. two datives, 850. 

Vescor, constr., 880. 
| Vestras, 248. 
1 Vestrum, Vestri, distinct., 773. 

Veto, constr., 1204. 

Via, decl., 51. 

Videor, constr., 642, 1146. 

Vir, decl., 62. 

Vis, decl., 123. 

Vocative case, 43 ; constr. of, 973 ff. ; 
for nom., 672 ; place of, 1395 ■ 
form, in Greek nouns, 70. 

Voice of verbs, 261 ff. ; 1073. 

Volens, idiomatic use of dat. of, 823. 

Volo, constr., 1140, 1204. 

Volus, adj. in, compar., 221. 

Vostrum for vestrum, 235. 

Vowels, sounds of, 4, 14 ; changes 
in comps., 364-9 ; in Greek words, 
]425 ; short by position, 1423. 

Vulgus, gender of, 72. 

"TTTANT, adj. of, 776 ; verbs of, 

Warning, verbs of, 793. 
Weights, Roman, 1559. 
Winds, gender of, 33. 
Words, classification of, 25 ff. 
Word-questions, 1041 ff. 

X formation of, 7 ; gender of 
3 nom. sing, in, 159 ff. 

Yonly in Greek words, 3. 
Y final, quantity of, 1480. 
Ys final, quantity of, 1486. 
Year, Roman, 1524. 



Z formation of, 7. 
5 Zeugma, 1378. 



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